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The  Elements  of  Old 
English 


Consisting  of 
ELEMENTARY  GRAMMAR 

(with  selections  for  reading) 

REFERENCE  GRAMMAR 


By  SAMUEL  MOORE 

University  of  Michigan 

and 

THOMAS  A.  KNOTT 

University  of  Chicago 


PRICE   $1.50 


GEORGE  WAHR,  Publisher 

Ann  Arbor,  Michigan 


Historical  Outlines  of  English  Phonology 

and 

Middle  English  Grammar 


FOR  COURSES  IN  CHAUCER,  MIDDLE  ENGLISH, 
AND  THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 


By 

SAMUEL  MOORE 

Associate  Professor  of  English  in  the 

University  of  Michigan 


GEORGE  WAHR 

ANN  ARBOR,  MICHIGAN 
1919 


Copyright  1919 
By 

Samuel  Moore 


LOAN  STACK 


Cjg^,^.    V5?/C 


PRINTED     AND    BOUND     BY 

GEORGE    SANTA    PUBLISHING     COMPANY 

MANUFACTURING      PUBLtSHERB 

MENASMA,     WISCONSIN 


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PREFACE 

Inasmuch  as  this  book  is  intended  for  use  in  three  distinct  courses 
of  the  English  curriculum — Chaucer,  Middle  EngUsh,  and  the  history 
of  the  EngUsh  language — I  hope  I  may  be  permitted  a  few  words  of 
explanation  as  to  the  purpose  its  various  parts  are  intended  to  serve  in 
relation  to  these  courses. 

The  elementary  course  in  Chaucer  is  usually  the  student's  introduc- 
tion both  to  the  study  of  medieval  literature  and  to  the  study  of  Middle 
English.  There  will  always,  probably,  be  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
relative  emphasis  that  should  be  placed  on  these  two  aspects  of  the 
course,  but  its  content  must  always  be  to  some  extent  linguistic.  All 
teachers  desire  that  their  students  shall  learn  to  read  Chaucer  aloud  with 
a  facihty  comparable  to  that  with  which  they  read  a  modern  poet  and 
with  a  fair  degree  of  approximation  to  Chaucer's  own  pronunciation, 
and  most  teachers  desire  that  they  shall  acquire  some  notion  of  the 
organic  value  of  final  e  in  Chaucer's  language.  The  purpose  of  Part  II 
of  this  book  is  to  enable  the  elementary  student  to  acquire  a  sound  and 
accurate  knowledge  of  Chaucer's  language  without  the  expenditure  of  art 
inordinate  amount  of  time,  and  to  arouse  the  student's  interest  in  this 
part  of  his  work  by  emphasising  the  principles  that  are  illustrated  in 
the  study  of  Chaucer's  language.  The  treatment  of  the  subject  is  in- 
tended to  be  thoroly  clear  to  students  who  have  not  studied  Old  Enghsh, 
and  yet  to  give  such  students  some  degree  of  real  understanding  of  the 
relation  of  Chaucer's  language  to  Old  Enghsh  on  the  one  hand  and  to 
Modern  Enghsh  on  the  other. 

Of  all  the  languages  taught  in  our  universities  Middle  Enghsh  fur- 
nishes the  best  material  for  the  study  of  language  in  the  making,  for  the 
direct  observation  of  linguistic  change;  yet  the  pedagogical  difficulties 
involved  in  emphasising  adequately  this  aspect  of  the  study  of  Middle 
English  are  such  that  our  courses  in  Middle  English  have  tended  on  the 
whole  to  become  mere  translation  courses.  In  Part  IV  of  this  book, 
dealing  with  the  historical  development  of  Middle  English  inflections, 
I  have  tried  to  unify  for  the  student  the  apparent  confusion  of  Early 
Middle  English  forms  by  showing  in  detail  how  Old  English  developed 


342 


into  the  Middle  English  of  Chaucer  thru  the  action  of  the  two  great  causes 
of  change  in  language,  sound  change  and  analogy.  The  study  of  Part 
IV  is  prepared  for  by  the  account  of  the  history  of  English  sounds  which 
is  contained  in  Part  III,  and  it  is  supplemented  by  the  account  of  the 
Middle  English  dialects  which  is  contained  in  Part  V.  Parts  III,  IV, 
and  V,  like  Part  II,  are  intended  to  be  thoroly  clear  to  students  who  have 
not  studied  Old  English,  but  they  are  equally  well  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  the  student  who'  has  studied  Old  EngHsh. 

The  course  in  the  history  of  the  English  language  is  usually  intended 
for  students  who  have  studied  neither  Old  English  nor  Middle  English, 
and  for  that  reason  it  presents  certain  difl&culties  for  the  teacher.  The 
greatest  difficulty  is  that  of  enabling  such  students  to  acquire  anything 
approaching  a  clear  and  definite  knowledge  of  the  changes  of  pronuncia- 
tion that  have  taken  place  in  English  during  the  past  thousand  years. 
The  best  method,  I  believe,  of  meeting  this  difficulty  is  to  begin  the 
study  of  English  phonology  with  the  phonetic  analysis  of  the  student's 
own  speech,  this  analysis  being  accompanied  by  and  based  upon  a  study 
of  the  elements  of  phonetics  and  practice  in  the  use  of  a  phonetic  alpha- 
bet. If  then  the  Old  English,  Middle  English,  and  Modern  English  words 
that  illustrate  English  sound  changes  are  interpreted  by  means  of  the 
phonetic  alphabet  which  the  student  has  learned,  he  can  gain  from  a 
study  of  them  such  a  knowledge  of  the  history  of  Enghsh  sounds  as  he 
could  not  possibly  gain  from  a  study  of  the  same  words  in  their  ordinary 
spellings.  The  Introduction  to  this  book,  dealing  with  the  elements  of 
phonetics.  Part  I,  dealing  with  Modern  English  sounds,  and  Part  III, 
dealing  with  the  history  of  English  sounds,  furnish  material  for  the 
study  of  English  phonology  according  to  this  method.  The  study  of  the 
history  of  English  inflections  may  be  based  on  Part  IV,  which  deals  with 
the  historical  development  of  Middle  English  inflections,  for,  tho  the 
inflections  of  Modern  English  are  outside  the  scope  of  this  book,  it  is  not 
difficult  to  show  the  student  that  the  Modern  English  forms  are  virtually 
those  of  Late  Middle  English  minus  the  final  e  which  was  lost  in  the 
fifteenth  century. 

The  phonetic  notation  I  have  used  in  this  book  is  a  modification  of 
that  of  the  International  Phonetic  Alphabet.  Practical  considerations, 
however,  have  led  me  to  depart  from  the  International  alphabet  farther 
than  I  originally  intended.  For  the  purposes  of  this  book  it  seemed 
clearly  desh-able  to  use  as  the  sign  of  vowel  length  the  macron  which  is 


used  by  editors  of  Old  and  Middle  English  texts  rather  than  the  colon  of 
the  International  alphabet.  There  seemed  also  to  be  a  distinct  ad- 
vantage in  using  as  the  s}Tnbols  of  "open  o"  and  "open  e"  the  char- 
acters Q  and  §  which  are  used  in  Middle  English  texts  rather  than  the 
International  s\Tnbols.  Some  persons  may  possibly  object  to  my  use  of 
e  and  6  as  symbols  for  the  vowel  sounds  of  Modern  English  they  and  low. 
My  primary  reason  for  using  these  symbols  rather  than  symbols  that 
indicate  the  diphthongal  nature  of  these  vowels  is  that  the  amount  and 
kind  of  diphthongisation  of  these  and  other  "long  vowels "  is  by  no  means 
uniform  in  American  Enghsh.  It  therefore  seemed  best  to  use  e,  6,  etc. 
as  somewhat  conventional  s}Tnbols  for  these  sounds  and  to  explain  their 
diphthongal  nature  at  appropriate  places  in  the  footnotes. 

It  would  be  impossible  for  me  to  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to  all 
the  sources  I  have  used  in  the  preparation  of  this  book,  but  I  know  that 
I  am  under  particular  obhgations  to  Sweet's  History  of  English  Sounds, 
New  English  Grammar,  First  Middle  English  Primer,  Second  Middle 
English  Primer,  Sounds  of  English,  and  Primer  of  Spoken  English ;  Jes- 
persen's  Progress  in  Language  with  Special  Reference  to  English  and 
Modern  English  Grammar,  Part  I  {Sounds  and  Spellings);  Wyld's  His- 
torical Study  of  the  Mother  Tongue  and  Short  History  of  English ;  Grand- 
gent's  English  in  America  (Die  Neueren  Sprachen,  II,  443  ff.,  520  ff.); 
Morsbach's  Mittelenglische  Grammatik;  Kaluza's  Historische  Grammatik 
der  englischen  Sprache;  Stratmann's  Middle  English  Dictionary  (revised 
by  Bradley);  Emerson's  Middle  English  Reader;  Child's  Observations  on 
the  Language  of  Chaucer;  Kittredge's  Observations  on  the  Language  of 
Chaucer^ s  Troilus;  Ten  Brink's  Language  and  Metre  of  Chaucer  (translated 
by  Smith) ;  Liddell's  grammatical  introduction  to  his  edition  of  Chaucer's 
Prologue  to  the  Canterbury  Tales,  Knightes  Tale,  etc. ;  Skeat's  Comphte 
Works  of  Geofrey  Chaucer  (Oxford,  6  vols.);  Cromie's  Ryme-Index  to  the 
Ellesmere  Manuscript  of  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales;  and  Hempl's 
Chaucer's  Pronunciation. 

I  am  much  indebted  to  my  colleague  Prof.  W.  R.  Humphreys  for 
help  he  has  given  me  in  reading  proof. 

I  need  scarcely  say  that  I  shall  be  grateful  to  those  who  will  call  my 
attention  to  any  omissions  or  errors  which  they  may  observe  in  their 
use  of  this  book  or  who  can  suggest  any  changes  by  which  it  may  be 
better  adapted  to  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  intended. 

S.M. 


CONTENTS 

Introduction:  The    Elements    of    Phonetics 1 

Part  I    Modern  English  Sounds 6 

Part  II    The  Language  of  Chaucer 

Pronunciation 12 

Inflections 25 

Final  e 32 

Part  III    The  History  of  EngHsh  Sounds 

Pronunciation  of  Old  EngHsh 36 

Normal  Development  of  Old  EngHsh  Vowels  in  ME  and  MnE  38 

Special  Developments  in  Middle  EngHsh 40 

Special  Developments  in  Modern  English 43 

Consonant  Sounds 47 

Part  IV    Historical  Development  of  Middle  English  Inflections 

Nouns 49 

Adjectives 55 

Pronouns 57 

Verbs 60 

Part  V    Middle  English  Dialects 

Distribution ; 71 

Southern  Dialect 71 

Kentish  Dialect 73 

Midland  Dialect 74 

Non-Northern  Dialect  Characteristics 75 

Non-Southern  Dialect  Characteristics 76 

Northern  Dialect , 77 

Appendix:    Middle  English  Spelling 79 


INTRODUCTION 


The  Elements  of  Phonetics 


1.  Organs  of  Speech.  Speech-sounds  are  produced  by  a  stream  of  air 
expelled  from  the  lungs,  which  is  modified  in  various  ways  by  means  of 
the  larynx,  containing  the  vocal  cords;  the  soft  palate;  the  hard  palate; 
the  teeth;  the  hps;  the  tongue;  and  the  nasal  passage.  The  hard  and 
soft  palates  form  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  the  hard  palate  being  in  front, 
the  soft  palate  behind.  By  the  varied  activity  of  these  organs,  the 
various  consonant  and  vowel  sounds  are  produced. 

2.  Voiced  and  Voiceless  Sounds.  With  reference  to  the  activity  of  the 
vocal  cords,  soimds  are  either  voiced  or  voiceless.  All  speech  sounds  are 
produced  by  the  expulsion  of  a  stream  of  air  from  the  lungs.  In  the  pro- 
duction of  a  voiceless  or  breath  sound,  the  stream  of  air  passes  freely 
thru  the  larynx;  the  vocal  cords  are  wide  open,  so  that  they  offer  no  im- 
pediment to  the  stream  of  air  and  therefore  do  not  vibrate.  But  in  the 
production  of  a  voiced  sound,  the  vocal  cords  are  drawn  close  together  so 
that  they  are  caused  to  vibrate  by  the  stream  of  air  which  passes  between 
them.  This  vibration  can  be  felt  by  placing  the  first  two  fingers  upon  the 
larynx  or  "Adam's  apple"  while  one  is  pronoimcing  a  vowel  sound,  or 
the  consonant  v.  AlWowel  sounds  are  voiced,  but  consonants  may  be 
either  voiced  or  voiceless.  It  is  voice  that  distinguishes  g  (as  in  get)  from 
k,  d  from  t,  b  from  p,  v  from  f,  z  from  s  (as  in  soon),  and  the  sound  of 
th  in  then  from  the  sound  of  th  in  thin} 

3.  Stops  and  Spirants.  With  reference  to  the  manner  of  their  articula- 
tion, consonants  are  distinguished  as  stopped  consonants  (or  explosives) 

1  By  practice  one  may  soon  learn  to  distinguish  voiced  sounds  from  voiceless  ones. 
A  good  exercise  for  practice  is  to  pronounce  alternately  s  and  z,  f  and  v,  and  the  two 
sounds  of  th,  taking  care  to  pronounce  the  consonant  sound  alone  without  the  aid  of  a 
vowel.  The  sounds  of  t  and  d,  p  and  b,  etc.,  when  pronounced  without  a  vowel,  will 
also  be  felt  and  heard  to  be  ver>-  different  in  character.  It  will  also  be  observed  that 
voiced  sounds,  whether  vowels  or  consonants,  are  capable  of  being  uttered  with  varia- 
tions of  musical  pitch,  whereas  voiceless  sounds  are  not.  Of  the  following  sounds, 
distingmsh  those  that  are  voiced  from  those  that  are  not:  1.  m,  n,  r,  sh. 


2  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PHONETICS 

and  open  consonants  (or  spirants).  In  the  production  of  stopped  con- 
sonants, the  outgo  of  breath  from  the  lungs  is  stopped  at  some  point  by 
the  complete  closing  of  the  mouth  passage.  The  increasing  pressure  of 
the  breath  then  forces  open  the  stoppage,  causing  an  explosive  sound. 
In  the  production  of  open  consonants  or  spirants,  the  mouth  passage  is 
not  completely  stopped,  but  the  air  from  the  lungs  is  made  to  pass  thru  a 
narrow  opening  with  so  much  friction  as  to  cause  a  buzzing  or  hissing 
noise.  Stopped  consonants  are  Modern  English  g  (as  in  get),  k,  d,  t,  b, 
p;  open  consonants  are  z,  s,  th  (as  in  then),  th  (as  in  thin),  v,  £.^ 

4.  The  complete  or  partial  closure  required  to  produce  stops  and  open 
consonants  is  made  by  means  of  the  tongue  or  lips,  and  the  quality  of  the 
various  sounds  is  determined  by  the  manner  in  which  the  closure  is  made. 
Modern  English  g  (as  in  get)  and  k  are  produced  by  pressure  of  the 
tongue  against  the  soft  palate;  y  (as  in  yield),  is  made  by  an  incomplete 
closure  between  the  tongue  and  the  hard  palate;  d  and  t  are  made  by  the 
pressure  of  the  front  of  the  tongue  against  the  ridge  above  the  upper  front 
teeth;  z  and  s  are  made  with  an  incomplete  closure  at  the  same  point; 
b  and  p  are  produced  by  means  of  a  closure  of  the  two  lips;  v  and  f  are 
produced  by  an  incomplete  closure  between  the  lower  lip  and  the  upper 
front  teeth ;  th  as  in  then,  and  th  as  in  thin  are  produced  by  causing  air 
to  pass  between  the  tip  of  the  tongue  and  the  backs  or  edges  of  the  upper 
front  teeth. 

5.  According  to  the  place  of  their  formation,  these  consonants  are  there- 
fore classified  as  back  or  velar  consonants  (g,  k);  front  or  palatal  con- 
sonants (y) ;  dental  consonants  (d,  t,  z,  s,  th  in  then,  th  in  thin) ;  and 
labial  consonants  (b,  p,  v,  f). 

6.  Nasal  and  Oral  Consonants.  With  reference  to  the  activity  of  the 
nasal  passage,  consonants  are  classified  as  oral  or  nasal.  All  of  the  con- 
sonants mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph  are  oral  consonants.  The 
nasal  consonants  are  m,  n,  and  ng  (as  in  thing) .  In  the  articulation  of  the 
oral  consonants,  the  passage  from  the  throat  to  the  nose  is  closed,  so  that 
the  steam  of  air  emitted  by  the  lungs  can  escape  only  thru  the  mouth.  In 
the  articulation  of  the  nasal  consonants,  however,  the  passage  from  the 
throat  to  the  nose  is  left  open,  so  that  air  can  escape  freely  thru  the  nose. 

'  Are  r,  sh,  and  y  open  consonants  or  stopped  consonants? 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PHONETICS  3 

At  the  same  time  the  mouth  passage  is  completely  stopped,  the  closure 
being  made  for  m,  n,  and  ng,  precisely  as  for  b,  d,  and  g,  respectively.^ 

7.  Vowels.  Vowel  sounds  are  more  open  than  open  consonant  sounds. 
In  the  formation  of  an  open  consonant,  a  stream  of  air  is  made  to  pass 
thru  an  opening  so  narrow  that  the  passage  of  the  air  causes  friction  and 
therefore  noise.  In  the  formation  of  a  vowel,  however,  the  opening  is 
so  wide  that  the  air  in  passing  thru  the  mouth  causes  no  friction  at  all. 

8.  Open  and  Close  Vowels.  But  the  vowels  are  not  all  equally  open 
in  their  formation.  If  one  pronounces  in  order  the  vowel  sounds  of  the 
words  hat,  hate,  heat,  he  will  observe  that  in  pronouncing  each  of  these 
successive  sounds  the  tongue  is  closer  to  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  When 
we  pronounce  the  series,  the  tongue  starts  from  a  position  considerably 
below  the  roof  of  the  mouth  and  ends  ui  a  position  quite  close  to  the  roof 
of  the  mouth.  This  can  be  felt,  and  it  can  also  be  seen  by  pronouncing 
the  sounds  before  a  mirror.  The  same  thing  can  be  observed  in  regard 
to  the  vowels  of  the  words  law,  low,  loot.  As  we  pronounce  this  series  of 
vowels,  we  can  feel  the  tongue  going  higher  in  the  mouth,  and  we  can  see 
it  indirectly  by  w^atching  the  upward  movement  of  the  lower  jaw  as  we 
pronounce  the  three  sounds  before  a  mirror. 

9.  This  difference  in  openness  or  height  is  the  basis  of  one  of  the  most 
important  classifications  of  vowel  sounds.  We  distinguish  at  least  three 
degrees  in  the  height  of  vowel  sounds.  If  the  tongue  is  quite  close  to  the 
roof  of  the  mouth,  we  call  the  vowel  a  high  vowel.  If  the  tongue  occupies 
a  low  position  in  the  mouth,  we  call  the  vowxl  a  low  vowel.  If  the  tongue 
is  in  a  position  about  midway  between  its  extreme  high  position  and 
its  extreme  low  position,  we  call  the  vowel  a  mid  vowel.  So  the  vowels  of 
law  and  hat  are  low  vowels,  the  vowels  of  low  and  hate  are  mid  vowels, 
and  the  vowels  of  loot  and  heat  are  high  vowels. 

10.  Back  and  Front  Vowels.  When  we  pronounce  in  succession  the  two 
series  of  vowels  heard  in  law,  low,  loot,  and  hat,  hate,  heat,  we  can  perceive 
that  the  tongue  Hes  differently  as  we  utter  the  two  series.  When  we  pro- 
nounce the  vowels  of  law,  low,  loot,  it  is  the  back  of  the  tongue  that  is 
closest  to  the  roof  of  the  mouth.    When  we  pronounce  the  vowels  of 

'  Vowels  are  normally  oral  sounds,  but  they  become  nasalized  when  they  are  pro- 
nounced with  the  passage  from  the  throat  to  the  nose  open.  The  most  familiar 
examples  of  nasalized  vowels  are  those  of  Modem  French. 


4  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PHONETICS 

hat,  hate,  heat,  it  is  the  front  of  the  tongue  that  is  closest  to  the  roof  of 
the  mouth.  This  can  be  felt,  and  it  can  also  be  seen  by  looking  into  the 
mouth  as  we  pronounce  the  two  series  of  sounds  before  a  mirror.  We 
therefore  call  the  vowels  of  law,  low,  loot,  back  vowels,  and  the  vowels  of 
hat,  hate,  heat  front  vowels.  This  is  the  second  basis  of  the  classification 
of  vowel  sounds. 

11.  Combining  the  two  classifications  of  vowel  sounds,  we  say  that  the 
vowel  of  hat  is  a  low  front  vowel,  that  the  vowel  of  hate  is  a  mid  front 
vowel,  that  the  vowel  of  heat  is  a  high  front  vowel,  that  the  vowel  of 
law  is  a  low  back  vowel,  that  the  vowel  of  low  is  a  mid  back  vowel, 
and  that  the  vowel  of  loot  is  a  high  back  vowel.^ 

12.  Round  and  Unround  Vowels.  If  one  pronounces  before  a  mirror 
the  two  series  of  vowel  sounds  heard  in  hat,  hate,  heat,  and  law,  low,  loot, 
he  will  see  that  the  action  of  the  lips  in  pronouncing  the  two  series  is  not 
the  same.  In  pronouncing  the  first  series,  the  corners  of  the  mouth  are 
drawn  apart  so  as  to  make  a  wide  opening.  But  in  pronouncing  the  latter 
series,  the  corners  of  the  mouth  are  drawn  together  so  as  to  make  a  more 
or  less  rounded  opening;  in  fact,  one  finds  that  he  cannot  pronounce  this 
series  of  vowels  with  the  corners  of  the  mouth  drawn  apart.  We  there- 
fore make  a  further  distinction  between  round  and  unround  vowels, 
and  call  the  vowel  of  law  a  low  back  round  vowel,  the  vowel  of  low  a  mid 
back  round  vowel,  and  the  vowel  of  loot  a  high  back  round  vowel. 
The  vowels  of  hat,  hate,  heat,  on  the  other  hand,  are  unround  vowels. 

13.  Generally  speaking,  back  vowels  tend  to  be  round,  and  front  vowels 
to  be  unround.  But  unround  back  vowels  and  round  front  vowels  also 
occur.  The  vowel  of  Modern  English  far  is  a  mid  back  unround  vowel. 
Front  round  vowels  may  be  illustrated  by  Modern  German  kuhn  and 
milssen,  in  which  are  heard  the  long  and  short  varieties  of  the  high  front 
round  vowel.  The  vowel  of  kilhn  may  be  produced  by  pronouncing  the 
vowel  of  heat  with  the  Hps  rounded  as  if  for  pronouncing  the  vowel  of  loot. 
The  vowel  of  miissen  may  be  produced  by  pronouncing  the  vowel  of  hit 
with  the  hps  rounded  as  if  for  pronouncing  the  vowel  of  pull.  No  front 
round  vowels  occur  in  Modern  Enghsh,  but  the  two  sounds  just  described 
were  frequent  sounds  in  Old  Enghsh. 

*  Some  vowels,  for  example  a  in  English  Cuba,  e  in  German  gabe,  e  in  French  je, 
are  neither  front  vowels  nor  back  vowels.  They  occur  chiefly  in  unstressed  syllables 
and  are  generally  termed  mixed  vowels. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PHONETICS  5 

14.  Quantity  of  Vowels.  The  foregoing  classification  of  vowel  sounds 
has  reference  only  to  the  quality  of  vowels.  But  vowels  differ  from  each 
other  not  only  in  quaUty  but  also  in  quanitiy  or  length  of  duration. 
With  regard  to  quantity,  vowels  are  distinguished  as  long  and  short.^ 
In  Modern  English  the  long  vowel  of  meet  differs  from  the  short  vowel  of 
met  not  only  in  quantity  but  also  in  quality,  the  former  being  a  high 
front  vowel  and  the  latter  a  mid  front  vowel.  Likewise,  the  long  vowel 
in  loot  differs  from  the  short  vowel  in  look  both  in  quality  and  in 
quantity;  both  vowels  are  high  back  round  vowels,  but  the  latter  is 
slightly  lower  or  more  open  in  its  formation  than  the  former.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  long  vowel  of  art  differs  from  the  vowel  of  the  first  syl- 
lable of  artistic  in  length  or  duration  alone. 

15.  Diphthongs.  A  diphthong  consists  of  two  vowel  sounds  pro- 
nounced in  a  single  syllable.  In  Modern  EngHsh  we  have  diphthongs 
in  the  words  foil,  foul,  and  file. 

'  The  student  must  guard  against  the  phonetically  incorrect  use  of  the  terms  long 
and  short  as  they  are  appUed  in  modem  English  dictionaries.  The  vowel  in  mate  is 
called  "long  a,"  the  vowel  in  mat  is  called  "short  a";  but  the  two  vowels  are  not  the 
long  and  short  varieties  of  one  sound;  they  differ  in  quality  as  well  as  in  length. 


PARTI 


Modern  English  Sounds 

16.     Phonetic  Alphabet.    The  sounds  of  Modern  English  are  ex- 
pressed in  phonetic  notation  as  follows: 


a 

like 

a 

in 

father 

a 

}} 

a 

>> 

artistic,  o  in 

ae 

}> 

a 

» 

hat 

b 

}) 

b 

>> 

be 

d 

>> 

d 

)j 

do 

e 

>y 

a 

)> 

mate 

e^ 

5> 

a 

)) 

chaotic 

1 

5J 

al 

}) 

airy 

€ 

» 

e 

)y 

met 

f 

» 

f 

» 

fee 

g 

» 

i 

» 

go 

» 

h 

» 

heed 

>> 

i 

>> 

machine 

)) 

i 

5> 

bit 

)> 

ia 

>> 

carriage 

» 

y 

y> 

yes 

5J 

k 

» 

kin 

J> 

I 

» 

let 

m 

>y 

m 

» 

meet 

n 

}) 

n 

j> 

net 

0 

)) 

ng 

5> 

sing 

0 

)) 

0 

>J 

note 

o« 

)) 

0 

>> 

donation 

e 

jj 

a 

J> 

all 

Q« 

» 

au 

>> 

audacious 

p 

)> 

P 

>> 

pit 

r 

» 

r 

>> 

rat 

8 

>> 

s 

>> 

seat 

Li. 

»> 

sh 

>> 

ship 

•  This  sound  occurs  only  in  unstressed  syllables  and  in  syllables  with  secondary 
stress;  it  does  not  occur  in  strongly  stressed  syllables. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  SOUNDS 


u. 

like 

s 

in 

pleasure 

t 

)> 

t 

33 

tone 

\> 

)} 

th 

33 

th'n 

tJ 

)) 

th 

33 

then 

u 

)) 

00 

33 

boot 

u 

J) 

u 

33 

push 

A 

J3 

u 

33 

hut 

5 

33 

u 

33 

urge 

9« 

33 

a 

33 

about 

V 

33 

V 

33 

vat 

w 

33 

w 

33 

win 

z 

)> 

z 

33 

zest 

Dipththongs: 

ai 

33 

i 

33 

find 

au 

)3 

ou 

33 

ou 

33 

u 

33 

accuse,  mute 

ju^ 

33 

u 

33 

accusation 

QJ 

33 

oy 

33 

boy 

Consonant  combinations: 

hw 

33 

wh 

in 

why 

tf 

33 

ch 

33 

chew 

d? 

33 

3 

33 

jaw 

For  the  representation  of  certain  sounds  which  occurred  in  Old  Eng- 
lish and  Middle  EngUsh,  but  which  do  not  occur  in  Modern  EngUsh,  the 
following  additional  characters  are  needed: 
h  before  consonants  and  after  vowels  hke  ch  in  German  ich,  nacht'' 


y 
y 

ce 


"  g  ' 
"  iih  ' 

'  North  German  sagen 
'  German  kiihn 

33      JJ          3 

'         "       miissen 

33     y          3 

'         "        hbren 

33      y           3 

'         "        wbrter 

« This  sound  occurs  only  in  unstressed  syllables  and  in  syllables  with  secondary 
stress;  it  does  not  occur  in  strongly  stressed  syllables. 

'  The  sounds  of  ch  which  occur  in  German  ich  and  nacht  are  of  course  altogether 
different  from  the  sound  of  h  in  heed,  and  are  usually  represented  in  phonetic  notation 
by  the  characters  €  and  x  respectively.  The  character  h  is  used  in  our  alphabet  merely 
for  the  sake  of  simphcity. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  SOUNDS 


17.     Keywords.    The  Modern  English  key-words  given  above  are 
written  in  phonetic  notation  as  follows: 


fatSar 

g6 

not 

Sgn 

aekjuz,  sekiuz" 

artistik 

hid 

done  fan 

but 

mjut,  mint* 

fadar 

m9fin 

9I 

puf 

aekjuzefan 

haet 

bit 

gdefas 

hAt 

bgi 

bl 

kaerld^ 

pit 

9rd5 

hwai 

du 

JSS 

raet 

abaut 

tfu 

met 

kin 

sit 

vaet 

d^Q 

keatik 

l?t 

fip 

win 

?ri 

mit 

plggar 

zgst 

mgt 

ngt 

ton 

faind 

fi 

sir) 

\)'m 

aut 

18.  Modern  English  in  Phonetic  Notation.  The  pronunciation 
represented  in  the  paragraphs  printed  below  is  the  natural  pronunciation 
of  the  transcriber  (who  is  a  native  of  southeastern  Pennsylvania)  when 
speaking  at  a  rate  about  midway  between  slow,  formal  speech  and  rapid, 
colloquial  speech.  In  the  transcriber's  dialect  the  vowel  [a]^^  is  extremely 
frequent  and  occurs  in  many  situations  where  speakers  from  other  local- 
ties  would  use  [i].  In  studying  the  transcription  the  student  should 
observe  that  many  words,  especially  pronouns,  prepositions,  and  auxil- 
iary verbs,  have  "strong"  and  "weak"  forms.  The  strong  forms  are 
used  when  these  words  are  strongly  stressed,  the  weak  forms  are  used 
when  they  are  weakly  stressed.  For  example,  the  strong  form  of  who  is 
[hu],  the  weak  form  is  [hu]  or  [u].  The  student  should  also  observe  that 
r,  I,  m,  and  n  often  form  a  syllable  even  when  they  are  not  accompanied 
by  a  vowel;  they  do  so,  for  example,  in  [papJ9l'r],Une  7;  [pipl],line  7;  and 
[kanvarsefn],  Hne  3.  Syllabic  r,  1,  m,  and  n,  when  necessary  for  clear- 
ness, are  written  ['r],  ['{],  ['in],  and  ['nj.  In  the  conventional  spelling 
the  first  paragraph  of  the  text  transcribed  below  is  as  follows: 

In  every  cultivated  language  there  are  two  great  classes  of  words 
which,  taken  together,  comprise  the  whole  vocabulary.  First,  there  are 
those  words  with  which  we  become  acquainted  in  ordinary  conversa- 
tion,— which  we  learn,  that  is  to  say,  from  the  members  of  our  own  family 


*  Both  pronunciations  occur  in  American  English. 

'*  Here  and  elsewhere  the  brackets  are  used  to  indicate  that  the  spellings  they 
enclose  are  phonetic  spellings. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  SOUNDS  9 

and  from  our  familiar  associates,  and  which  we  should  know  and  use  even 
if  we  could  not  read  or  write.  They  concern  the  common  things  of  life 
and  are  the  stock  in  trade  of  all  who  speak  the  language.  Such  words  may- 
be called  "popular,"  since  they  belong  to  the  people  at  large  and  are  not 
the  exclusive  possession  of  a  Hmited  class. 

in  gvri  kAltavetad  Ifijgwid^  Sgr  ar  tu  gret  klaesaz  av  wardz  hwitf, 
tekn  taggSar,  kmpraiz  Sa  hoi  vakaebjalari.  farst,  Sgr  'r  Soz  wardz  wat5 
witf  wi  bilovm  akwentad  in  grdan'ri  kanvarsefn — hwitf  wi  lam,  Saet 
az  ta  se,  fram  Sa  mgmbarz  av  ar  on  faemli  an  fram  ar  familjar  aso fiats, 

5  an  witf  wi  fad  no  an  juz  ivn  if  wi  kud  nat  rid  an  rait.  Se  kansarn  Sa 
kaman  ]?igz  av  laif,  and  'r  Sa  stak  in  tred  av  9I  u  splk  Sa  lerjgwidg. 
SAtf  wardz  me  bi  kgld  "papjal'r,"  sins  Se  bal^rj  ta  Sa  pipl  at  lard^ 
and  'r  nat  Si  ikskluziv  pazgfn  av  a  limatad  klaes. 

Qn  Si  .vSar  haend,  ar  lfgg\\'id5  inkludz  a  mAltitud  av  wardz  hwitf 

10  'r  kampsratavli  sgldm  juzd  'n  ^rdanari  kanvarsefn.  Sgr  minigz  'r 
non  tu  gvri  gd^aketad  parsn,  bat  Sar  az  Htl  ake2;n  tu  implpi  Sam  at  hom 
'r  an  Sa  markat-ples.  ar  farst  akwentans  waS  Sam  L\mz  nat  fram  ar 
mASarz  lips  'r  fram  Sa  tgk  av  ar  skiilmets,  bat  fram  buks  Sat  wi  rid, 
Igktfarz  Sat  wi  hir,  gr  Sa  mgr  fgrm'l  kanvarsefn  av  haili  gd^aketad 

15  spikarz,  hu  'r  daskAsig  SAm  partikjalar  tapik  an  a  stall  apropriath 
^lavetad  abAV  Si  abitfual  Igvl  av  gvride  laif.  SAtf  wardz  'r  kgl 
"larnad, "  'n  Sa  dastigkfn  batwin  Sgm  an  "papjal'r"  wardz  iz  av 
gret  amp^rtns  tu  a  rait  Andarstfndig  av  Uggwistik  prases. 

Sa  dif'rns  batwin  papjal'r  an  larnad  wardz  me  bi  izali  sin  'n  a 

20  fju  agzaemplz.  wi  me  daskraib  a  garl  az  "laivli"  gr  az  "vavefas. " 
in  Sa  farst  kes,  wi  'r  juzig  a  netiv  igghf  fgrmefn  fram  Sa  familjar  naun 
"laif."  in  Se  laetar,  wi  'r  juzig  a  laetn  darivativ  hwitf  haz  prasaisli 
Sa  sem  minii).  jgt  Si  aetmasfir  av  Sa  tu  wardz  az  kwait  dif'rnt.  no 
WAn  §vr  gat  Si  aedgiktiv  "laivli"  aut  av  a  buk.    It  az  a  part  av 

25  gvribadiz  vakaebjalari.  wi  kaenat  ramgmbar  a  taim  wgn  wi  did  nat 
no  it,  an  vn  fil  fur  Sat  wi  larnd  at  Igg  bifgr  wi  war  ebal  ta  rid.  gn 
(S  ASar  haend,  wi  mAStav  paest  sgv'ral  jirz  av  ar  laivz  bifgr  larnir)  Sa 
w5rd  "  vavefas. "  wi  me  Ivn  ramgmbar  Sa  farst  taim  wi  sg  it  'n  print 
gr  h9rd  at  fram  SAm  gronAp  frgnd  hu  waz  tgklg  ovr  ar  tfaildif  hgdz. 

30  bo))  "laivli"  an  "vavefas"  ar  gud  igglif  wardz,  bat  "laivli"  Iz 
"papjal'r"  an  "vavefas"  az  "larnad." 

gvri  gdgaketad  parsan  haez  at  list  tu  wez  av  spikig  Iz  mASar  tAg . 


10  MODERN  ENGLISH  SOUNDS 

(59  f5rst  9Z  "Saet  hwitf  i  implQiz  an  iz  faemli,  aniAg  iz  familjar  frgnz,  'nd 
gn  Qrd'nari  akegnz.     Sa  sgkand  az  '5aet  hwitf  i  juzas  'n  diskgrsig  gn 

35  mgr  kampliketad  sAbdgikts,  'nd  an  adrgsig  p5rsnz  wa3  hum  i  az  l?s 
intamatli  akwentad.  it  az,  'n  f^rt,  Sa  Ifggwidg  witf  i  implgiz  wan  i 
az  "gn  iz  dignati,"  aez  i  puts  Qn  ivnig  drgs  waniiz  goir)  aut  ta  dain. 
'5a  dif'rns  batwin  Siz  tu  fgrmz  av  Ifggwidi^  kansists,  'n  gret  mggar, 
in  a  dif'rns  av  vakaebjalari.    3a  besas  av  familjar  wardz  mast  bi  (5a 

40  sem  'n  bo)?,  bat  Sa  vakaebjalari  apropriat  ta  Sa  mgr  fgrm'l  ake2;n  wal 
anklud  mgni  t5rmz  hwitf  wad  bi  stiltad  ar  afgktad  an  grd'nari  tQk. 
'5ar  az  glso  kansid'rabl  dif'rns  batwin  familjar  an  dignafaid  Igggwids; 
'n  Sa  maenar  av  Atarans.  kantraest  Sa  raepad  Atarans  av  ar  gvride 
daial^kt,  ful  av  kantraekfnz  'n  klipt  fgrmz,  waS  Sa  mQr  dastirjkt 

45  anAnsiefn  av  Sa  pulpat  ar  (5a  plaetfgrm.  (5as,  an  kanvarsefn,  wi 
abitfuali  implgi  SAtf  kantraekfnz  az  "ail,"  "dont,"  "wont,"  "its," 
"wid,"  "hid,"  'n  Sa  laik,  hwitf  wi  fad  ngvar  juz  'npAbliksplkir), 
Anl^s  ev  s^t  pSrpas,  ta  giv  a  markadli  kalokwial  tind^  ta  wat  wi  haev 
ta  se. 
(Transcribed  from   Greenough  and  Kittredge's  Words  and  their 

Ways  in  English  Speech,  pp.  19,  20,  27,  28.) 

19.     Phonetic    Classification    of   Modern    English    Sounds.     The 

vowels  of  Modern  EngUsh  are  classified  phonetically,  according  to  the 
principles  explained  above  in  7-14,  as  follows: 


BACK  VOWELS 

MIXED  VOWELS 

FRONT  VOWELS 

Round 

Unround 

Unround 

Unround 

High  u,  u 

i,  i,  J 

Mid    6,  0 

a,  a,  A 

9 

e,  e,  e 

Low    Q,  Q 

9 

1,  ae 

The  classification  of  the  consonant  sounds,  according  to  the  principles 

explained  above  in  1-6,  is  as  follows: 

Velar  Palatal  Dental  Labial 

Stops 

Voiced  g  d  b 

Voiceless       k  t  p 

Spirants 

Voiced  j  ^,  z,  tJ       .  v 

Voiceless  f,  s,  J)  f 

Nasals 

Voiced  n  n  m 


MODERN  ENGLISH  SOUNDS  11 

[1]  is  a  "divided"  consonant;  it  is  produced  by  pressing  the  point  of 
the  tongue  against  the  hard  palate  and  allowing  the  air  from  the  lungs  to 
escape  at  the  sides  of  the  mouth;  it  is  usually  voiced,  but  sometimes  voice- 
less, as  in  play. 

[r]  is  produced  by  turning  the  point  of  the  tongue  up  towards  the 
hard  palate;  it  is  usually  voiced,  but  sometimes  voiceless,  as  in  try. 

[w]  is  a  voiced,  open,  velar  soimd  made  with  a  decided  rounding 
of  the  hps. 

[hw]  is  a  voiceless  [w]. 

[h]  is  a  breath  sound  made  with  the  tongue  and  lips  in  the  position, 
or  approaching  the  position,  which  they  will  occupy  in  producing  the 
vowel  that  follows. 


PART  II 

THE  LANGUAGE  OF  CHAUCER 

Pronunciation  of  Chaucer's  Language 

20.  Pronunciation  of  Chaucer:  Phonetic  Notation.  The  following 
table  shows  the  vowels  and  diphthongs  of  Chaucer's  dialect  of  Middle 
Enghsh,  expressed  in  the  phonetic  notation  given  above  in  section  16, 
and  indicates  also  the  spellings  of  those  sounds  which  are  usually 
found  in  the  best  manuscripts  of  Chaucer's  works. 


Sound 
[a] 
[a] 
[e] 
[|] 
f?] 
[i] 
[i] 
[o] 

[q] 
[q] 

[fi] 
[u] 


Pronunciation 
like  a  in  father 
fodder 
mate^° 
airy 
met 


o 

a 

ai 

e 

i 

i 

o 

aw 

au 

00 

u 


machine^" 

bit 

notei" 

law 

audacious  o 

boot^'^  ou,  ow 

full  u,  o 


SpelUng 
a,  aa 
a 

ee,  e 
ee,  e 
e 

i,y 

i,  y 

00,  o 
00,  o 


Examples 
bathed  [baSad]^'' 
that  [bat] 
swete  [sweta] 
heeth  [h^\>] 
wende  [wgnda] 
ryde  [rid a] 
swich  [switf] 
roote  [rota] 
hooly  [hgli] 
folk  [fglk] 
fowles  [fulas] 
Jul  [ful] 


'  The  brackets  indicate  that  the  spellings  they  enclose  are  phonetic  spellings. 

"The  Modem  English  sounds  given  as  the  equivalents  of  Chaucer's  [e],  [i],  [o], 
and  [u]  are  only  approximate  equivalents,  for  the  Modern  English  sounds  which  we 
have  represented  by  the  symbols  [e],  [i],  [6],  and  [u]  are  in  reality  diphthongs,  not  simple 
vowels.  The  Modern  English  sounds  which  we  have  represented  by  [e]  and  [6]  are 
more  accurately  represented  phonetically  by  the  symbols  [§e]  or  [ei]  and  [qo]  or  [ou]. 
The  Modem  English  sounds  that  we  have  represented  by  [i]  and  {u]  may  be  more 
accurately  represented  by  the  symbols  [ij]  and  [uw].  Chaucer's  [e],  [i],  [6],  and  [u] 
were  simple  vowels,  pronounced  like  the  corresponding  vowels  of  Modem  German. 


[au] 

}) 

ou    "  out 

[ei] 

>y 

k]  plus  [i]" 

ku] 

}> 

[?]  plus  [u] 

[iu] 

}} 

[i]  plus  [u]i2 

[Qi] 

j> 

oy   in  boy 

[Qu] 

>> 

[q]  plus  [nr 

[qu] 

5> 

[q]  plus  u]" 

PRONUNCIATION  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE  13 

[9]         like  a    in  about  e  sonne  [sunns] 

au,  aw        Jaught  [fauht] 
ai,ay,ei,  ey  day  [dgi],  wey  [wgi] 
eu,  ew        fewe  [fgua] 
u,  eu,  ew    aventure  [avgntiura], 

reule  [riula] 
oi,  oy  coy  [kgi] 

ou,  ow        bowe  [bgua] 
ou,  ow,  o    foughten  [fQuhtan] 

21.     Pronunciation  of  Vowels,  Diphthongs,  and  Consonants.     The 

pronunciation  of  the  first  117  lines  of  Chaucer's  Prologue  is  indicated  in 
the  texts  printed  below  on  pages  14  ff .  The  text  on  the  right  hand  pages 
is  transcribed  in  the  phonetic  notation  which  has  been  explained  above 
in  sections  16  and  20.  The  text  on  the  left  hand  pages  is  printed  in  the 
spelling  of  the  manuscripts,  but  with  the  addition  of  diacritics  which 
indicate  the  pronunciation  of  the  vowels  and  diphthongs.  The  symbols 
which  are  used  in  the  diacritical  text  are  for  the  most  part  the  same  as 
those  employed  in  the  phonetic  notation,  but  for  greater  convenience 
they  are  all  given  below  in  alphabetical  order. 

Symbols  Pronunciation  Examples 

a,  aa  like  a    in  father                                     bathed,  baar 

a  "  o     "  fodder                                    that 

ai,  ay  "  §  plus  i,  approximately  ey  in  they^^  saide,  day 

au,  aw  "  ou  in  house                                       f aught,  saw 

e,  ee  "  a     "  mate                                       swete,  seeke 

§,  §§  "  ai    "  airy                                          m^te,  hggth 

g  "  e     "  met                                         wgnde 

ei,  ey  "  ?  plus  i,  approximately  ey  in  they^^  curteis,  wey 

"  A  fair  approximation  to  this  sound  is  the  a  of  Modem  English  mate,  for  this 
sound,  as  explained  above  in  note  10,  is  in  reality  a  diphthong,  not  a  simple  vowel. 
"  A  fairly  close  approximation  to  this  sound  is  the  u  of  Modem  English  mute. 
"  If  one  cannot  acquire  this  diphthong,  he  may  substitute  for  it  the  simple  vowel 


[«]. 
[«]. 


"  If  one  cannot  acquire  this  diphthong,  he  may  substitute  for  it  the  simple  vowel 
"  See  note  1 1  above. 


14 


PRONUNCIATION  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE 


Symbols 

Pronunciation 

Examples 

eu,  ew                 like  i  in  u,  approximately  u 

in  mute 

reule,  knew 

€u,  §w 

'    «  "  u 

f^we 

»,  y                  ' 

'   i     in  machine 

whil,  ryde 

i,y 

'   i      "  bit 

swich,  lystes 

5,  00                      ' 

'   0     "  note 

d5n,  roote 

Q,QQ 

'   aw  "  law 

Qpen,  hQQly 

Q 

'   au  "  audacious 

fglk 

Q  plus  gh  or  h       ' 

'    q     plus  u^" 

bQghte 

8 

'    u     in  full 

s5nne 

oi,  oy 

'   oy   "  boy 

coy 

ou,  ow                    ' 

'    00   "  boot 

hous,  fowles 

QU,  QW 

'     Q  plus  U^^ 

SQule,  hqwe 

QU 

'     Q       "    Ul« 

fQughten 

ii                           ' 

'   i      "  u,  approximately 

u  in  mute 

v^rtii 

u                           ' 

'    u     in  full 

ful 

Unaccented  e,  as  in  sSnne,  saide,  swete,  etc.,  is  pronounced  like  a  in 
Cuba.     When  this  final  e  is  written  but  is  not  pronounced  in  reading, 

22.  CHAUCER  IN 

Whan  that  Aprill?  with  his  shoures  soote 
The  droghte  gf  March  hath  perced  to  the  roote, 
And  bathed  |u?ry  veyne  in  swich  Ucour 
Qf  which  vgrtii  ^ng^ndred  is  the  flour; 
5  Whan  Zgphirus  ggk  with  his  swete  brggth 

Inspired  hath  in  |u?ry  hglt  and  hggth 
The  t^ndre  crQppes,  and  the  yonge  sonne 
Hath  in  the  Ram  his  halue  cours  yronne. 
And  smale  fowles  maken  mglodye, 
10  That  slepen  al  the  nyght  with  gpen  ye, 

Sq  priketh  hgm  nature  in  hir  corages; 
Thann^  l^ngen  fglk  to  gggn  gn  pilgrimages, 
And  palmgr^s  fgr  to  seken  straunge  str^ndes, 
To  fgrne  halwes  kowthf  in  sondry  Igndes. 


"  If  one  cannot  acquire  this  diphthong,  he  may  substitute  for  it  the  simple  vowel  [q]. 
"  If  one  cannot  acquire  this  diphthong,  he  may  substitute  for  it  the  simple  vowel  [«]. 
'*  This  diphthong  occurs  only  before  gh  or  h;  if  one  cannot  acquire  it,  he  may  sub- 
stitute for  it  the  simple  vowel  [q]. 


PRONUNCIATION  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE         15 

it  is  printed  as  e  if  it  is  elided  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel  or 
"weak  h";  and  as  e  if  it  is  apocopated  before  a  word  beginning  with  a 
consonant.  Unaccented  e  occurring  between  two  consonants  of  the 
same  word  is  also  printed  as  e  when  it  is  not  pronounced  in  reading,  that 
is  when  it  is  syncopated.  For  an  explanation  of  elision,  apocopation. 
and  syncopation  see  section  40  below. 

Chaucer's  consonant  sounds  are  in  general  the  same  as  those  of  Mod- 
ern English.  It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  gh  is  pronounced  Uke 
ch  in  German  ich,  nacht;  e.g.,  nyght  [niht];  initial  th  is  always  pronounced 
like  th  in  thin;  e.g.,  that  [bat];  final  s  is  always  pronounced  [s],  not  [z]; 
e.g.,  wan  [was],  shoures  [furas];  k,  1,  and  w  are  never  silent;  e.g., 
knyght  [kniht],  palmers  [palmers],  write  [writa];  ng  is  pronounced  like 
ng  in  finger;  e.g.,  yonge  [jugga];  r  is  strongly  trilled  with  the  tip  of  the 
tongue;  consonants  that  are  doubled  in  writing  are  usually  pronounced 
double,  as  in  Modern  Enghsh  pen-knife;  e.g.,  sonne  [sunna],  alle  [alia]. 

The  letters  u  and  v  were  interchangeable  in  Chaucer's  time.  For 
example  in  the  text  printed  below  the  letter  u  represents  the  sound  of 
[v]  in  euery  (line  3),  and  the  letter  v  represents  the  vowel  [u]  in  Vnder 
(Hne   105). 

PHONETIC  NOTATION" 

hwan  ])2X  april  wij?  is  furas  sota 
J?3  druht  gf  martf  ha]?  persad  to  Jja  rota, 
and  baSad  gvxi  vgin  in  switl  Ukur 
Qf  hwitf  vgrtiu  gnd^^ndrad  is  Jja  flur; 
5  hwan  zgfirus  |k  wij>  is  sweta  brgj? 

inspirad  ha}?  in  |vri  hglt  and  hfj? 
}?a  t^ndar  krgppas,  and  jja  jugga  sunna  ' 

ha)?  in  ]?a  ram  is  halva  kurs  irunna, 
and  smala  fulas  makan  mglodia, 
10  \>2X  slepan  al  |?a  niht  wi]?  gpan  la, 

S2  prikaj?  hgm  natiur  in  hir  kurad^as; 
]?an  Igggan  fglk  to  ggn  gn  pilgrimad^as, 
and  palmgrs  fgr  to  sekan  straund^a  strgndas, 
to  fgrna  halwas,  kuS  in  sundri  Igndas. 

"  The  text  used  is  that  of  Liddell,  The  Prologue  to  the  Canterbury  Tales,  etc.,  with 
some  changes  of  pimctuation.  All  other  passages  quoted  from  Chaucer's  works 
follow  the  text  of  Skeat's  Student's  Chaucer. 


-7 


16         PRONUNCIATION  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE 

15  And  specially  frgm  |u?ry  shires  §nde 

Qf  ^^ngelgnd  to  Caunturbury  they  w?nde, 
The  hQQly  bHsful  martir  iqv  to  seke 
That  hgm  hath  hglpen  whan  that  they  w|r?  seeke. 
Bifil  that  in  that  sfson  qn  a  day, 

20  In  Southwgrk  at  the  Tabard  as  I  lay 

Rgdy  to  wgnden  gn  my  pilgrymage 
To  Cauntgrbury  with  ful  deuout  corage, 
At  nyght  was  comf  in  to  that  hgstglrye 
Wei  nyne  and  twenty  in  a  compaignye 

25  Qf  sondry  fglk,  by  augnture  y-falle 

In  felaw^shipe,  and  pilgrim^s  wf re  they  alle, 
That  toward  Cauntgrbury  wglden  ryde. 
The  chambres  and  the  stables  w|ren  wyde, 
And  wel  we  wf  ren  |sed  atte  bgste. 

30  And  shgrtly,  whan  the  sonne  was  to  rgste, 

Sq  hadde  I  spoken  with  hgm  guerychgn 
That  I  was  Qf  hir  fglaw^shipe  angn, 
And  made  fgrward  ^rly  fgr  to  ryse 
To  t  ake  our?  wey  thgr  as  I  yow  deuyse. 

35  But  nathelggs,  whil  I  hau?  tyme  and  space, 

^^r  that  I  farther  in  this  tale  pace, 
Me  thynketh  it  acgrdaunt  to  r|soun 
To  tgUe  yow  al  the  CQndicioun 
Qf  gch  of  hgm  sQ  as  it  semed  me, 

40  And  which?  they  w^re,  and  gf  what  degree, 

And  ggk  in  what  array  that  they  w^re  inne; 
And  at  a  Knyght  than  wol  I  first  bigynne. 

A  Knyght  th^r  was  and  that  a  worthy  man, 
That  iiQ  the  tyme  that  he  first  bigan 

45  To  riden  out  he  loued  chiualrle, 

Trguthe  and  hgnour,  fredom  and  curteisie. 
Ful  worthy  was  he  in  his  lordes  wgrre, 
And  th|rt6  hadde  he  riden,  no  man  f?rre, 
As  wel  in  cristendom  as  in  hfthengsse, 


PRONUNCIATIOX  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE         17 

15  and  spesiali  frgm  f  \Ti  firas  gnda 

pf  gggalond  to  kaunturbri  )7gi  wgnda, 

Jj9  h^li  blisful  martir  iqr  to  seka 

)?at  hgm  ha]7  hQlpan  hwan  j^at  p^i  wgr  seka. 
bifil  J?at  in  )?at  sfziin  on  a  dgi, 
20  in  suSw^rk  at  )79  tabard  as  i  Igi 

r^di  to  wgndsn  gn  ml  pilgrimad^a 

to  kaunturbri  wilp  ful  devut  kurad^a, 

at  niht  was  kum  in  to  J?at  ost^lrla 

wel  nln  and  twgnti  in  a  kumpginia 
25  qi  simdri  fglk,  bi  avgntiur  ifalls 

in  felaufip,  and  pilgrims  wer  p^i  alb, 

Jjat  toward  kaimtgrburi  w^ldan  rida. 

)?9  tfambars  and  Jja  stabals  wgran  wida, 

and  wel  we  wfran  |z3d  atta  bgsta. 
30  and  fgrtli,  hwan  }>9  sunna  was  to  rgsta, 

SQ  had  i  spgkan  wi)?  gm  gyritlgn 

Jjat  i  was  gf  hir  felaufip  angn, 

and  mada  fgrward  |rli  for  to  rlza 

to  tak  ur  wgi  J?|r  as  i  ju  devlza. 
35  but  naSalgs,  hwil  i  av  tun  and  spasa, 

|r  )?at  i  fgrSar  in  jjis  tale  pasa, 

me  Jjigka)?  it  akgrdaunt  to  rfzun 

to  tglla  ju  al  J)a  kgndisiun 

gf  |tf  gf  hgm  sq  as  it  semad  me, 
40  and  hwitf  J?gi  wfra,  and  gf  hwat  degre, 

and  fk  in  hwat  arrgi  )7at  Jjgi  wfr  inna; 

and  at  a  kniht  )7an  wul  i  first  biginna. 
a  kniht  J?f  r  was  and  )?at  a  wurSi  man, 

Jjat  frg  Jja  tima  ]3at  e  first  bigan 
45  to  ridan  ut  he  luvad  tfivalria, 

trguS  and  gnur,  fredom  and  kiu-tgizla. 

ful  wurSi  was  e  in  is  Igrdas  wgrra, 

and  Jjfrto  had  e  ridan,  uq  man  f^rra, 

as  wel  in  kristandom  as  in  hf  Sangssa, 


J8         PRONUNCIATION  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE 

SO  And  |v?re  hpnoured  fgr  his  wSrthyngsse. 

At  Alisaundre  he  was  whan  it  was  wonne; 
Ful  Qfte  tym?  he  hadd?  the  bgrd  bigonne 
Abouen  alle  nacions  in  Priice. 
In  Lgttgw  haddc  he  reysed  and  in  Riice, 

55  Nq  cristen  man  sg  qite  gf  his  degree. 

In  Gernade  at  the  seege  ??k  haddg  he  be 

Qf  Alggzir  and  riden  in  Bglmarye. 

At  Lyeys  was  he  and  at  Satalye 

Whan  they  w|re  wonne,  and  in  the  Gr|te  S?g. 

60  At  many  a  n^ble  armee  haddg  he  be. 

At  mgrtal  batailles  hadde  he  been  fiftene, 
And  fgughten  f qi  oure  feith  at  Tramyssene 
In  lystes  thries,  and  ay  slayn  his  fgg. 
This  ilke  worthy  knyght  hadd§  been  alsg 

65  Somtyme  with  the  l^rd  of  Palatye 

AgayTi  another  h|then  in  Turkye; 
And  f  uer^rnggr?  he  hadde  a  souereyn  prys. 
And  thgugh  that  he  w^r§  worthy,  he  was  wys, 
And  gf  his  pgrt  as  meeke  as  is  a  mayde. 

70  He  nguere  ygt  ng  vileyny^  ne  sayde 

In  al  his  lyf  vnto  ng  mangr  wight. 
He  was  a  vgrray  parfit,  ggntil  knyght. 
But  fgr  to  tgllen  yow  gf  his  array. 
His  hgrs  w^r?  goode,  but  he  was  nat  gay; 

75  Qi  fustian  he  wgred  a  gypon 

Al  bismoter^d  with  his  habergeon, 
Fgr  he  was  1  ate  y-com?  f rgm  his  viage 
And  wgnte  fgr  to  doon  his  pilgrymage. 

With  hym  th^r  was  his  sone,  a  yong  Squler, 

80  A  louygrg  and  a  lusty  bachgler, 

With  Igkkes  crulle,  as  they  wgre  leyd  in  prgsse. 

Qf  twenty  yggr  gf  age  he  was,  I  g?sse; 

Qf  his  statiir?  he  was  gf  gu^ne  Igngthe 

And  wSnderly  delyu^re  and  gf  grggt  strgngthe; 


PRONUNCIATION  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE  19 

50  and  |vr  Qnurad  fgr  is  wurSingssa. 

at  alisaundr  e  was  hwan  it  was  wunna ; 

ful  Qft9  tim  he  had  Jja  bgrd  bigunna 

abuv9n  alb  nasiuns  in  priusa. 

in  Igtgu  had  e  rgizad  and  in  riusa, 
55  ng  kristan  man  sg  gft  qi  his  degre. 

in  ggrnad  at  ps  sedz;  f  k  had  e  be 

qi  ald2;gzlr  and  ridan  in  bglmaria ; 

at  hgis  was  e  and  at  satalia 

hwan  ]?gi  w|r  wun,  and  in  jja  gr|ta  sj- 
60  at  mani  a  ngbal  arme  had  e  be. 

at  mQrtal  batgils  had  e  ben  fiftena, 

and  fQuhtan  fgr  ur  fgi)?  at  tramisena 

in  hstas  }?rias,  and  gi  slgin  is  fo. 

Jjis  ilka  wurSi  kniht  had  ben  alsg 
65  sumtlma  wij?  Ips  Igrd  gf  palatia 

aggin  anoSar  hgSan  in  turkia ; 

and  ^varmgr  he  had  a  suvrgin  prls. 

and  pQuh  \)aX  he  w|r  wurSi,  he  was  wis, 

and  qi  is  pgrt  as  mek  as  is  a  mgida. 
70  he  ngvar  jgt  ng  vilgini  na  sgida 

in  al  is  lif  unto  ng  mangr  wiht. 

he  was  a  vgrrgi  parfit,  d^gntil  kniht. 

but  fgr  to  tgllan  ju  qi  his  arrgi, 

his  hgrs  wfr  goda,  but  e  was  nat  ggi; 
75  qi  fustian  he  wfrad  a  d^ipun 

al  bismutard  wi]?  is  hab^rd^un, 

fgr  he  was  lat  ikum  frgm  his  viad^a 

and  wgnta  fgr  to  don  is  pilgrimadga. 
wi)?  im  )7|r  was  is  sun,  a  jugg  skwier, 
80  a  luvjgr  and  a  lusti  batfgler, 

wijj  Igkkas  krul,  as  Ip^i  wgr  Igid  in  prgssa. 

gf  twgnti  jgr  gf  ad;^  e  was,  I  ggssa; 

gf  his  statiur  he  was  gf  gvna  Igggfja 

and  wundarH  delivr  and  gf  grft  str§gg|ja; 


20         PRONUNCIATION  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE 

85  And  he  hadd?  been  sSmtyme  in  chyuachle 

In  Flaundres,  in  Artoys,  and  Pycardie, 
And  bgrn  hym  weel,  as  qf  sg  litel  space, 
In  hgp?  to  stgnden  in  his  lady  grace. 
;^mbrouded  was  he,  as  it  wgre  a  m??de 

90  Al  ful  qi  fr^sshe  floures  whyte  and  rggde; 

SyngvTige  he  was  gr  floytyngc  al  the  day; 
He  was  as  fr^ssh  as  is  the  months  of  May. 
Shgrt  was  his  gown?,  with  sleues  Igngg  and  wyde; 
Wei  koudi"  he  sitte  gn  hgrs  and  faire  ryde; 

95  He  koude  sgnges  make  and  wel  gndite, 

luste  and  §gk  daunce,  and  weel  purtreye  and  write. 
Sg  hggt?  he  loued  that  by  nyghtertale 
He  sleep  namggr?  than  dooth  a  nyghtyngale. 
Curteis  he  was,  Igw^ly  and  sgruysable, 

100  And  carf  bifgrn  his  fader  at  the  table. 

A  Yeman  hadde  he  and  sgruantz  namg 
At  that  tym?,  fgr  hym  hste  ride  sgg. 
And  he  was  clad  in  cgte  and  hood  gf  grene. 
A  shggf  gf  pf  cgk  arwes,  bright  and  kene, 

105  Vnder  his  bglt  he  bar  ful  thriftily — 

Wel  koude  he  drgsse  his  takel  yemanly. 
His  arwes  drouped  ngght  with  fgth? res  Igwe — 
And  in  his  hand  he  baar  a  myghty  bgwe. 
A  ngt  hg^d  hadde  he,  with  a  broun  visage; 

110  Qi  woodecraft  wel  koudg  he  al  the  vsage. 

Vpgn  his  arm  he  baar  a  gay  bracer 
And  by  his  syde  a  swerd  and  a  bok^ler, 
And  gn  that  oother  syde  a  gay  daggere 
Harneised  wel  and  sharp  as  point  gf  sp^re; 

115  A  Cristgphrg  on  his  brest  gf  siluer  sheene, 

An  hgrn  he  bar,  the  bawdryk  was  gf  grene; 
A  forster  was  he  soothly,  as  I  ggsse. 


PRONUNCIATION  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE         21 

85  and  he  had  ben  sumtim  in  tfivatfia 

in  flaundars,  in  artgis,  and  pikardia, 

and  bgrn  im  wel,  as  of  sg  htal  spasa, 

in  hgp  to  stgndan  in  is  ladi  grasa. 

gmbrudad  was  e,  as  it  w|r  a  mfda 
90  al  f ul  gf  frgf a  fluras  h\\it  and  r|da ; 

sir) gig  g  e  was  or  flgitigg  al  )7a  dgi; 

he  was  as  frgf  as  is  )?a  monj?  gf  mgi. 

fgrt  was  is  gun,  vn])  slevas  Iggg  and  wida; 

wel  kud  e  sit  gn  hgrs  and  f gire  rida ; 
95  he  kuda  sgggas  mak  and  wel  gndita, 

d^ust  and  ^k  dauns,  and  wel  purtrgi  and  wrlta. 

sg  hot  he  luvad  J?at  bi  nihtartala 

he  siep  namgr  jjan  do  J?  a  nihtirjgala. 

kurtgis  e  was,  Iguli  and  s^rvizabal, 
100  and  karf  bifgrn  is  fader  at  Jja  tabal. 

a  jeman  had  e  and  servants  namg 

at  ]7at  tun,  fgr  im  Hsta  rida  sg, 

and  he  was  klad  in  kgt  and  hod  gf  grena. 

a  f|f  gf  pgkgk  arwas,  briht  and  kena, 
105  undar  is  bglt  e  bar  ful  J?riftili — 

wel  kud  e  drgs  is  takal  jemanll, 

his  arwas  drupad  nguht  \np  f§5ras  Igua — 

and  in  is  hand  e  bar  a  mihti  bgua. 

a  ngt  hfd  had  e  wij?  a  brun  vizad^a; 
110  gf  wodakraft  wel  kud  e  al  })a  iuzad^a. 

upgn  is  arm  he  bar  a  g§i  braser 

and  bl  is  sId  a  swerd  and  a  bukler, 

and  gn  J^at  oSar  sid  a  ggi  dagera 

harngizad  wel  and  farp  as  pgint  gf  spera; 
115  a  kristgfr  gn  is  brest  gf  silvar  fena, 

an  hgm  e  bar,  J?a  baudrik  was  gf  grena; 

a  fgrstar  was  e  soJjH,  as  i  ggssa. 


22 


PRONUNCIATION  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE 


23.  Relation  of  Sounds  to  Spelling.  The  spelling  of  the  vowels  and 
diphthongs  in  the  manuscripts  of  Chaucer's  works  is  far  from  phonetic. 
In  a  phonetic  system  of  spelling  each  character  represents  one  sound,  and 
only  one.     In  the  manuscripts  of  Chaucer,  however, 

a     represents  [a]  or  [a] 


e            ' 

[e],  [I],  or  [§] 

ee          ' 

[e]  or  [?] 

i              ' 

[i]  or  [i] 

0               ' 

[o],  [q],  [q],  [u],  or  [qu 

00             ' 

[o]  or  [q] 

ou           ' 

[u],  [qu],  or  [qu] 

u            ' 

[u]  or  [iu] 

y 

[I]  or  [i] 

But  in  spite  of  these  ambiguities  of  spelling,  the  pronunciation  of  a  word 
in  Chaucer's  dialect  can  usually  be  inferred  from  the  pronunciation  of  the 
word  in  Modern  English. 

a        represents  [a]    if  in  MnE  the  vowel  is  [e] ;  ME  name,  MnE  [nem] 
a  "         [a]    ""      "       "       "     "  [ge];MEthat,  MnE  [Saet] 

ee  or  e      "         [e]  or 

[|]    "  "      "       "       "     "  [i];  ME  swete,  h§eth;  MnE 

[swit],  [hib] 
e  "         [?]    ""      "       "       "     "[€];MEw€nde,  MnE[wend] 

iory         "         [i]     ""      "       "       "     "  [ai];  ME  ryde,    MnE  [raid] 
iory         "         [i]     ""      "       "       "     "  [i];  ME  riden,  MnE  [ridan] 
oooro      "         [6]    ""      "       "       "     "  [u];  ME  rote,  MnE  [rut] 
oooro      "         [q]    "  "      "       "       "     "[6];  ME  liQQly,  MnE  [h5li] 
o  "         [q]    "  "      "       "       "     "  [a];  ME   Qxe,  MnE   [aks]^'' 

o  "         [u]    "  "      "       "       "     "  [a];  me  s5ne,  MnE  [sau] 

o  "         [qu]  "  "      "       "       "     "  [q];  me  thoght,  MnE  [bQt] 

ouorow  "         [u]    ""      "       "       "     "  [au];  ME  hous,  MnE  [haus] 
ouorow    "         [qu]  "   "      "       "       "     "  [o];  ME  bQwe,  MnE  [bo] 
ou  "         [qu]  "  "      "       "       "     "  [Q];MEfoughte,  MnE  [fQt] 

u  "         [u]    ""      "       "       "     "  [A];MEunder,  MnE[And»r] 

a  "         [iu]   "  "      "       "       "     "  [ju]  or  [u];  ME  humour,  rude; 

MnE  [hjumar],  [rud] 

"  In  the  dialect  of  most  parts  of  the  United  States,  ME  [q]  has  become  [a],  but 
the  ME  vowel  (or  a  vowel  much  like  it)  has  been  retained  in  the  speech  of  England 
and  New  England. 


PRONUNCIATION  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE         23 

24.  The  basis  of  the  statements  just  made  is  that  tho  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  EngHsh  vowel  sounds  has  changed  greatly  since  Chaucer's 
time,  it  has  changed  in  a  systematic  and  consistent  way.  Middle  Eng- 
lish [q]  has  regularly  developed  into  Modern  English  [6] ;  [HqU]  has  become 
[holi],  [bQt]  has  become  [bot],  [gpan]  has  become  [opan],  [sq]  has  become 
[so].  That  is,  under  the  same  conditions,  a  given  Middle  English  sound 
has  always  developed  into  a  certain  corresponding  Modern  English 
sound. 

But  the  conditions  are  not  always  the  same.  The  development  of  a 
sound  is  often  afifected  by  the  influence  of  other  sounds  which  precede  or 
follow  it.  Thus,  Middle  EngUsh  [u]  regularly  developed  into  Modern 
English  [a];  [sunna]  has  become  [sAn],  [undar]  has  become  [Andor],  [luva] 
has  become  [Iav].  But  when  Middle  Enghsh  [u]  was  preceded  by  a  Hp 
consonant  (b,  p,  f,  or  w)  and  was  followed  by  I,  it  has  been  preserved  in 
Modern  EngHsh;  e.g.,  Middle  EngHsh  [bula],  [pulla],  [fid],  and  [wulf]  are 
Modern  English  [bul],  [pid],  [ful],  and  [wulf].  Moreover,  vowels  change 
not  only  in  quality,  but  also  in  quantity.  Long  vowels  may  become 
short,  and  short  vowels  may  become  long.  For  example,  in  a  number  of 
words  Middle  English  [5],  which  has  regularly  become  [u]  in  Modern 
EngHsh,  is  represented  by  Modern  EngHsh  [u].  This  is  not  because 
Middle  EngHsh  [5]  has  in  these  words  changed  to  [u]  instead  of  [u],  but 
because,  after  [o]  had  become  [ii],  the  [u]  was  shortened  to  [u].  Thus 
we  have  Modern  EngHsh  [gud],  [hud],  and  [stud]  from  Middle  English 
god,  hod,  and  stod.  So  also  with  Modern  English  [brgj?]  from  Middle 
EngHsh  brfth;  Middle  English  [|]  regularly  changed  to  Modern  English 
[i],  but  in  this  case  [|]  was  shortened  to  [g]  before  the  change  to  [i]  oc- 
curred. 

25.  The  statements,  therefore,  that  have  been  made  with  regard  to 
the  relation  between  Middle  English  sounds  and  Modern  English  sounds 
are  not  sufficient  to  enable  us  to  determine  the  pronunciation  of  all 
Middle  EngHsh  words.  But  where  the  evidence  of  the  Modern  EngHsh 
pronunciation  is  not  clear,  it  is  almost  always  possible  to  determine 
the  Middle  EngHsh  pronunciation  of  a  native  EngHsh  word  from  a  knowl- 
edge of  its  pronimciation  in  Old  EngHsh.^^ 

'1  Likewise,  the  pronunciation  of  ME  words  that  were  borrowed  from  French  can 
be  deternuned  from  a  knowledge  of  their  pronunciation  in  Old  French;  the  Modern 
French  pronunciation  of  such  words  is  often  different. 


24         PRONUNCIATION  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE 

a        represents  [a]  if  in  OE  the  vowel  was  a  or  ae  in  an  open  syllable  ;^^ 

OE  nama,  faeder;  ME  name,  fader 
a  "         [a]  if  in  OE  the  vowel  was  a  or  ae  in  a  closed  syllable;^* 

OE  banc,  \>xt;  ME  thank,  that 
ee  or  e      "         [e]  if  in  OE  the  vowel  was  e  or  eo;  OE  swete,  beon;  ME 

swete,  been 
ee  or  e      "         [^]  if  in  OE  the  vowel  was  ea,  or  e  in  an  open  syllable; 

OE  eac,  mete;  ME  §gk,  m|te 
e  "         [g]  if  in  OE  the  vowel  was  e  or  eo  in  a  closed  syllable; 

OEhelpan,  weorc;  ME  hglpen,  wgrk 
i  or  y        "         [i]  if  in  OE  the  vowel  was  i  or  y;  OE  ridan,  fyr;  ME 

riden,  fyr 
i  or  y         "  [i]   if  in  OE  the  vowel  was  i  or  y;  OE  drincan,  fyllan;  ME 

drinken,  fillen 
00  or  o      "         [5]  if  in  OE  the  vowel  was  6;  OE  don;  ME  don 
00  or  0      "         [q]  if  in  OE  the  vowel  was  a,  or  o  in  an  open  syllable; 

OE  halig,  stolen;  ME  HgQly,  stglen 
o  "         [q]  if  in  OE  the  vowel  was  o  in  a  closed  syllable;  OE 

oxa;  ME  Qxe 
o  "         [u]  if  in  OE  the  vowel  was  u;  OE  sunu;  ME  sSne 

on  "         [u]  if  in  OE  the  vowel  was  u;  OE  bus;  ME  bous 

u  "         [u]  if  in  OE  the  vowel  was  u;  OE  under;  ME  under 

By  the  application  of  the  rules  that  have  been  given  in  this  section  of 
the  grammar  the  student  will  be  able  to  ascertain  the  pronunciation  of 
the  great  majority  of  the  words  that  occur  in  Chaucer's  works.  A  more 
systematic  and  detailed  account  of  the  history  of  English  sotlnds  will  be 
found  in  sections  42-45  below. 


^  An  open  syllable  is  one  that  ends  in  a  vowel;  in  words  of  two  or  more  syllables  a 
single  consonant  following  a  vowel  belongs  to  the  following  syllable;  so  in  OE  nama, 
fsder,  mete,  and  stolen,  a,  ae,  e,  and  o  were  in  open  syllables. 

"^  A  closed  syllable  is  one  that  ends  in  a  consonant;  examples  of  vowels  in  closed 
syllables  are  a,  ae,  e,  and  o  in  OE  Jjanc,  \>xt,  helpan,  and  oxa.  Every  vowel  which  is 
followed  by  two  or  more  consonants  is  in  a  closed  syllable. 


INFLECTIONS  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE  25 

INFLECTIONS  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE 

26.     Declension  of   Nouns.    The  regular  inflection  of  nouns  in 
Chaucer,  as  exemplified  by  dom,  judgment,  and  ende,  end,  is  as  follows : 


Sing.  Nom.,  Dat.,  Ace. 

dom 

ende 

Gen. 

domes 

endes 

Plur.  Nom.,  Gen.,  Dat.,  Ace. 

domes 

endes 

The  following  exceptions  occur: 

1.  The  genitive  singular  of  proper  nouns  ending  in  s  is  frequently 
without  ending;  e.g.,  Epicurus  owne  sone,  A  336. 

2.  The  genitive  singular  of  nouns  of  relationship  ending  in  r  is  some- 
times without  ending;  e.g.,  my  fader  soule,  A  781;  brother  sone, 
A  3084.23b 

3.  The  genitive  singular  of  nouns  which  belonged  to  the  Old  EngUsh 

"weak"  declension  is  sometimes  without  ending;  e.g.,  his  lady 
grace,  A  88;  the  sonne  up-riste,  A  105 1.^' 

4.  The  plural  sometimes  ends  in  s  instead  of  es;  e.g.,  naciouns,  A  53; 
hunters,  A  17S;  fees,  A  317;  this  is  particularly  common  in  words 
of  one  syllable  ending  in  a  vowel  and  in  words  of  two  or  more  syl- 
lables ending  in  a  consonant.  The  ending  -es  is  often  written 
when  only  s  is  sounded;  e.g.,  yeddinges,  A  237. 

5.  The  plural  of  some  nouns  ends  in  en  instead  of  es;  e.g.,  eyen,  A  152; 
children,  A  1193.^^ 

6.  The  plural  of  monosyllabic  nouns  ending  in  s  is  usually  without 
ending;  e.g.,  caas,  A  323. 

"  These  nouns  had  no  ending  in  the  genitive  singular  in  Old  English. 

^^  The  Old  English  genitive  singulars  of  Chaucer's  lady  and  sonne  were  hl^efdigan 
and  sunnan,  which  in  early  Middle  English  became  ladie(n)  and  sunne(n),  the  n  in 
parenthesis  being  a  sound  which  was  very  often  lost.  The  genitive  singulars  lady 
and  Sonne  in  Chaucer  are  the  early  Middle  English  forms  without  n,  the  three  syl- 
lables of  early  Middle  English  ladie  having  been  contracted  to  two. 

^'  Some  of  these  nouns,  such  as  eyen,  from  Old  EngKsh  cage,  belonged  in  Old 
EngUsh  to  the  weak  declension,  which  had  the  ending  -an  in  the  nominative  and  accusa- 
tive plural.  Others,  such  as  children,  from  Old  English  cild,  plural  cildru,  did  not 
belong  in  Old  English  to  the  weak  declension  but  assumed  the  weak  ending  -en  in 
Middle  EngUsh  from  the  analogy  of  nouns  which  had  been  weak  in  Old  English. 


26  INFLECTIONS  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE 

7.  Some  nouns  which  had  no  ending  in  the  nominative  and  accusative 
plural  in  Old  English  have  no  plural  ending  in  Chaucer;  e.g.,  hors, 
A  74;  swyn,  A  598;  yeer,  A  82.26 

8.  The  dative  singular  has  the  same  form  as  the  nominative-accusa- 
tive singular,  but  in  certain  phrases  consisting  of  a  preposition 
immediately  followed  by  a  noun  the  noun  has  the  old  dative  ending 
-e;  e.g.,  of  toimie,  A  566." 

27.  Declension  of  Adjecitves.  In  Middle  English,  as  in  Modern 
German,  there  are  two  declensions  of  the  adjective,  the  strong  and  the 
weak.  The  weak  declension  of  the  adjective  is  used  when  it  is  preceded 
by  the  definite  article  the,  by  a  demonstrative  (this  or  that),  by  a  pos- 
sessive pronoun,  or  by  a  noun  in  the  genitive  case;  e.g.,  the  yonge  sonne, 
A  7 ;  this  ilke  monk,  A  175 ;  his  halfe  cours,  A  8 ;  Epicurus  ownes  one,  A  336 ; 
the  weak  declension  is  also  used  when  the  adjective  precedes  a  noun  used 
in  direct  address;  e.g.,  f aire  fresshe  May,  A  1511;  it  may  also  be  used  when 
the  adjective  precedes  a  proper  name  not  used  in  direct  address;  e.g., 
faire  Venus,  A  2663. 

The  forms  of  the  strong  and  weak  declensions  of  the  adjectives  good 
and  swete  are  as  follows: 

Strong  Declension 


Singular 

good 

swete 

Plural 

goode 

swete 

Weak  Declension 

Singular 

gocde 

swete 

Plural 

goode 

swete 

It  will  be  observed  that  (1)  adjectives  like  swete  are  invariable  in  form; 
(2)  adjectives  like  good  have  in  the  strong  declension  the  ending  -e  in  the 
plural;  (3)  adjectives  like  good  have  in  the  weak  declension  the  ending 
-e  in  both  singular  and  plural. 

The  following  exceptions  occur: 

1.  Plural  adjectives  used  predicatively  are  often  not  inflected,  tho 
such  adjectives  are  frequently  written  with  a  final  e  even  when  the 
e  is  not  sounded;  e.g.,  whiche  they  weren,  A  40;  And  of  another 
thing  they  were  as  fayn,  A  2101 . 

^  These  were  neuter  nouns  in  Old  English. 
"  See  note  33  below. 


INFLECTIONS  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE 


27 


2,  Adjectives  of  two  or  more  syllables  ending  in  a  consonant  are 
usually  not  inflected,  either  in  the  plural  or  in  the  circumstances 
which  call  for  the  use  of  the  weak  inflection;  e.g.,  mortal  batailleSy 
A  61;  He  which  that  hath  the  shortest  shal  biginne,  A  836. 

3.  A  trace  of  the  old  genitive  plural  of  the  adjective  all  appears  oc- 
casionally in  the  form  aller,  alder-  (from  Old  English  ealra,  geni- 
tive plural  of  eal) ;  e.g.,  hir  aller  cappe,  "  the  cap  of  them  all, "  A  586; 
alderbest,  "best  of  all,"  A  710. 

28.     Personal  Pronouns     The  personal  pronouns  are  inflected  as 
follows  in  Chaucer;  forms  that  are  rare  are  placed  in  parentheses. 

1.  First  and  second  persons: 

I,  (ich)  thou 

my,  myn  thy,  thyn 

me  the 


Sing.  Nom. 

Gen. 

Dat.,  Ace. 
Plur.  Nom. 

Gen. 

Dat.,  Ace. 


we 


ye 


2.  Third  person: 


Dat.,  Ace.       hym 


our,  cure,  (cure)   your  [jur],  youre,  (youre) 
us  you  [ju] 

Sing.  Nom.  he  she  hit,  it 

Gen.  his  hir,  hire,  (hire) ;      his 

her,  here,  (here) 
hir,  hire,  (hire); 
her,  here,  (here)     hit,  it 
Plur.  Nom.  they 

Gen.  hir,  hire,  (hire);  her,  here,  (here) 

Dat.,  Ace,  hem 

29.  Demonstratives,  The  demonstratives  this  and  that  are  in- 
flected as  follows  in  Chaucer;  forms  that  are  rare  are  placed  in  paren- 
theses. 

Sing,    this  that 

Plur.     this,  thise,  (thise) ;  thes,  these,  (these)       tho  [\)q] 

A  trace  of  the  old  dative  singular  of  that  appears  in  the  phrase  for  the 
nones,  A  379,  from  Old  'English  for  pcsm  dnes  (literally  "for  that  once"); 
the  early  Middle  English  form  of  this  phrase  was  for  then  ones,  which 
by  incorrect  word  division,  came  to  be  written  in  Chaucer's  time  for 


28  INFLECTIONS  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE 

the  nones.  A  survival  of  the  old  instrumental  case  of  that  appears  in 
the  adverbial  the  (Old  English  }pt)\e.g.,the  more  merry,  A  802,  literally 
"more  merry  by  that." 

30.  Strong  and  Weak  Verbs.  In  Middle  Enghsh,  as  in  Old  EngHsh 
and  all  other  Germanic  languages,  there  are  two  conjugations  of  verbs, 
the  strong  and  the  weak.  Weak  verbs  form  their  preterit  by  means  of 
a  suffix  containing  d  or  t.  Strong  verbs  form  their  preterit  by  means 
of  a  change  in  the  vowel  of  the  stem  of  the  verb.  For  example,  the 
preterits  of  the  weak  verb  loven  and  the  strong  verb  riden  are  as  follows: 

Pret.  Ind.  Sing.  1  lovede,  loved  rood 

2  lovedest  ride 

»  3  lovede,  loved  rood 

Plur.  lovede(n)^^,  loved  ride(n) 

Weak  verbs  may  be  recognized  from  the  fact  that  their  preterit  indicative 
first  and  third  persons  singular  ends  in  -ede,  -ed,  -de,  or  -te  and  from  the 
fact  that  their  past  participle  ends  in  -ed,  d,  or  t.  Strong  verbs  may  be 
recognized  from  the  fact  that  their  preterit  indicative  first  and  third 
persons  singular  is  without  ending,  and  from  the  fact  that  their  past 
participle  ends  in  -en  or  e. 

31.  Endings  of  Weak  Verbs.  There  are  two  types  of  weak  verbs  in 
Middle  English.  Weak  verbs  of  Type  I  have  preterits  ending  in  -ede 
or  -ed  and  past  participles  ending  in  -ed.  Weak  verbs  of  Type  II  have 
preterits  ending  in  -de  or  -te  and  past  participles  ending  in  -ed,  d,  or  t. 
The  principal  parts  of  representative  verbs  are  as  follows: 

Type  I 
Type  II 


love(n) 

lovede,  lovede,  loved 

loved 

were(n) 

werede,  werede,  wered 

wered 

here(n) 

herde 

hered 

fele(n) 

felte 

feled 

fede(n) 

fedde 

fed 

seke(n) 

soughte 

sought 

The  endings  of  the  weak  verbs,  exempUfied  by  love(n)  of  Type  I  and 
here(n)  of  Type  II,  are  as  follows: 

Pres.  Ind.  Sing.  1  lov-e  her-e 

2  lov-est  her-est 

"  e(n)  indicates  that  the  ending  -en  interchanges  with  the  ending  -e. 


INFLECTIONS  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE 


29 


Plur. 
Pret.  Ind.  Sing.  1 
2 
3 

Plur. 
Pres.  Subj.  Sing. 

Plur. 
Pret.  Subj.  Sing. 

Plur. 
Imperative  Sing. 

Plur. 
Infinitive 
Gerund 
Pres.  Participle 


lov-eth 

lov-e(n) 

lov-ede,  lov-ede,  lov-ed 

lov-edest 

lov-ede,  lov-ede,  lov-ed 

lov-ede(n),  lov-ede,  lov-ed 

lov-e 

lov-e(n) 

lov-ede,  lov-ede,  lov-ed 

lov-ede(n),  lov-ede,  lov-ed 

lov-e 

lov-eth 

lov-e  (n) 

to  lov-e(n) 

lov-inge,  lov-inge,  lov-ing 


Past  Participle       lov-ed 


her-eth 

her-e(n) 

her-de 

her-dest 

her-de 

her-de  (n) 

her-e 

her-e(n) 

her-de 

her-de  (n) 

her 

her-eth 

her-e  (n) 

to  her-e(n) 

her-inge,  her-Inge, 

her-ing 

her-ed 


32.  Endings  of  Strong  Verbs.  Strong  verbs  form  their  preterit 
by  means  of  a  change  in  the  vowel  of  the  stem  of  the  verb.  The  vowel  of 
the  preterit  plural  is  often  different  from  that  of  the  preterit  singular,  so 
that  there  are  four  principal  parts,  the  infinitive,  the  preterit  indicative 
first  person  singular,  the  preterit  indicative  plural,  and  the  past  partici- 
ple.^^   The  principal  parts  of  representative  strong  verbs  are  as  follows : 


ride(n)  [rid  an] 
crepe(n)  [krepan] 
bmde(n)  [bindan] 
helpe(n)  [hglpan] 
sterve(n)  [stgrvan] 
bere(n)  [b^ran] 


speke(n)  [spgkan] 


rood  [rgd] 
creep  [kr§p] 
bond  [bgnd] 
halp  [halp] 
starf  [starf] 
bar  [bar] 
baar  [bar] 
beer  [her] 
spak  [spak] 


ride(n)  [ridan] 
crope(n)  [krgpan] 
bounde(n)  [bundan] 
holpe(n)  [hQlpan] 
storve(n)  [stqrvan] 
bere(n)  [beran] 
bare(n)  [bar an] 

speke(n)  [spekan] 
spake (n)  [spakan] 


ride(n)  [ridan] 
crope(n)  [krQpan] 
bounde(n)   [bundan] 
holpe(n)  [hglpan] 
storve(n)    [stQrvan] 
bore(n)  [bgran] 


spoke(n)     [spgkan] 


''  The  vowel  of  the  infinitive  occurs  also  in  the  present  indicative,  present  sub- 
junctive, imperative,  gerund,  and  present  participle;  the  vowel  of  the  preterit  indicative 
first  person  singular  occurs  also  in  the  preterit  indicative  third  person  singular;  the 
vowel  of  the  preterit  indicative  plural  occurs  also  in  the  preterit  indicative  second 
person  singular  and  in  the  preterit  subjunctive;  the  vowel  of  the  past  participle  occurs 
in  that  form  only. 


io  INFLECTIONS  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE 

shake(n)  [fakan]  shook  [fok]  shooke(n)  [fokan]  shake(n)  [fakan] 
slepe(n)  [slepan]  sleep  [slep]  slepe(n)  [slepan]  slepe(n)  [slepan] 
holde(n)  [hQidan]       heeld  [held]      heelde(n)  [heldan]      holde(n)  [hQldan] 

The  endings  of  the  strong  verbs,  exempUfied  by  ride(n)  and  bere(n),  are 

as  follows: 

Pres.  Ind.  Sing.  1  rid-e  ber-e 

2  rid-est  ber-est 

3  rid-eth,  rit  [rit]^"  ber-eth 
Plur.     rid-e(n)  ber-e(n) 

Fret.  Ind.  Sing.  1  rood  bar 

2  rid-e,  rood  ber-e,  bar 

3  rood  bar 
Plur.  rid-e  (n)  ber-e  (n) 

Pres.  Subj.  Sing,  rid-e  ber-e 

Plur.  rid-e  (n)  ber-e  (n) 

Pret.  Subj.  Sing,  rid-e  ber-e 

Plur.  rid-e  (n)  ber-e  (n) 

Imperative  Sing,  rid  ber 

Plur.  rid-eth  ber-eth 

Infinitive  rid-e  (n)  ber-e  (n) 

Gerund  to  rid-e(n)  to  ber-e (n) 

Pres.  Participle  rid-inge,  rid-inge,  rid-ing  ber-inge,  ber-inge,  ber- 

ing 

Past  Participle  rid-e  (n)  bor-e(n) 

33.  Preteritive-Present  Verbs.  The  preteritive-present  (or  strong- 
weak)  verbs  have  present  indicatives  which  are  like  the  preterit  indica- 
tives of  strong  verbs  in  that  they  have  no  ending  in  the  first  and  third 
persons  singular.  The  preterits  of  these  verbs  are  weak.  The  principal 
forms  of  the  more  important  preteritive-present  verbs  that  occur  in 
Chaucer  are  as  follows: 

Pres.  Ind.  Sing.  1  can,  be  able,  know  how  dar,  dare 

2  canst  darst 

3  can  dar 

Plur.     conne(n)  [kunnan],  can         dorre(n)  [durran],  dar 

'"  Contracted  forms  like  rit  are  frequent  in  verbs  whose  stems  end  in  d  or  t;  the 
contraction  originated  in  Old  English. 


INFLECTIONS  OF  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE  31 

Pret.  Ind.  Sing.  1  kouthe[kut$d],  koude  [kuda]  dorste  [dursta] 

Pres.  Ind.  Sing.  1  may,  be  able  moot,  be  permitted, 

be  under  obligation 

2  mayst  most 

3  may  moot 

Plur.     mowe(n)  [muwan],  may         mote(n),  moot 
Pret.  Ind.  Sing.  1  mighte  moste 

Pres.  Ind.  Sing.  1  shal,  be  about  to,  be  under  wot  [wQt],  know 
obligation 

2  shalt  wost  [wQst] 

3  shal  wot 

Plur.     shulle(n),  shul,  shal  wite(n),  wot 

Pret.  Ind.  Sing.  1  sholde  [fulda],  [fglda];  wiste 

shulde 

34.     Anomalous  Verbs.    The  forms  of  bee(n),  be,  are  as  follows: 

Pres.  Ind.  Sing.  1  am 

2  art 

3  is 

Plur.     bee(n),  be 
Pret.  Ind.  Sing.  1  was 

2  were 

3  was 
Plur.     were(n) 

Pres.  Subj.  Sing,  be 

Plur.  bee(n),  be 

Pret.  Subj.  Sing,  were 

Plur.  were(n) 

Imperative  Sing,  be 

Plur.  beeth 

Infinitive  bee(n),  be 

Gerund  to  bee(n),  to  be 

Pres.  Participle  being 

Past  Participle  bee(n),  be 

The  forms  of  wille(n),  will,  are  as  follows: 

Pres.  Ind.  Sing.  1  wil,  wol  [wul] 
2  wilt,  wok 


32  FINAL  e  IN  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE 

3  wil,  wol 
Plur.     wille(n),  wolle(n),  wil,  wol 

Pret.  Ind.  Sing.  1  wolde  [wQida],  [wulda] 

2  woldest 

3  wolde 
Plur.     wolde  (n) 

Pret.  Subj.  Sing,    wolde 

Plur.     wolde  (n) 
Infinitive  wille(n) 

Past  Participle       wold 

FINAL  e  IN  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE 

35.  Inflectional  and  Etymological  Final  e.  Final  e  in  Chaucer's 
language  is  either  inflectional  or  etymological.  Inflectional  final  e's 
are  those  which  occur  in  some  forms  of  a  word  but  not  in  others;  their 
occurrence  or  non-occurrence  depending  on  grammatical  considerations. 
For  example,  the  adjective  good  has  no  final  e  in  such  an  expression  as 
A  good  man  was  ther  of  religioun  (A  477),  but  it  has  a  final  e  in  the  ex- 
expressions  His  hors  were  gode  (A  74)  and  his  gode  name  (A  3049). 
In  A  74  gode  has  a  final  e  because  it  is  a  plural  adjective,  in  A  3049  it 
has  a  final  e  because  it  is  a  weak  adjective  (see  27  above);  but  in  A  477 
good  is  without  final  e  because  it  is  neither  plural  nor  weak.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  adjective  lene  has  a  final  e  in  the  expression  As  lene  was 
his  hors  as  is  a  rake  (A  287)  tho  it  is  neither  plural  nor  weak.  The  ex- 
planation of  the  final  e  in  lene  is  not  grammatical  but  etymological;  the 
word  has  a  final  e  because  it  ended  in  e  in  Old  EngHsh,  being  derived 
from  Old  EngHsh  hlane.  Final  e  in  goode  is  inflectional,  final  e  in  lene 
is  etymological. 

36.  Inflectional  Final  e.  Inflectional  final  e  occurs  in  adjectives 
and  verbs. 

L  Adjectives  (see  27  above) 
Final  e  occurs: 

a.  In  the  weak  form  of  the  adjective 

b.  In  the  plural  form  of  the  adjective^^ 

"  When  it  modifies  a  plural  noun  the  pronoun  his  is  very  commonly  written  hise 
in  good  manuscripts,  and  the  final  e  is  sometimes  pronounced.  This  final  e  is  from 
the  analogy  of  the  final  e  of  plural  adjectives.  So  also  is  the  final  e  of  these,  thise, 
plural  of  thes,  this  (see  29  above). 


FINAL  e  IN  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE  33 

2.  Verbs  (see  31-33  above) 
Final  e  occurs: 

a.  In  the  present  indicative  first  person  singular  of  strong  and 
weak  verbs 

b.  In  the  preterit  indicative  first  and  third  persons  singular  of 
weak  verbs 

c.  In  the  preterit  indicative  second  person  singular  of  strong  verbs 

d.  In  the  present  subjunctive  singular  of  strong  and  weak  verbs 

e.  In  the  preterit  subjunctive  singular  of  strong  and  weak  verbs 

f.  In  the  imperative  singular  of  many  weak  verbs 

g.  In  the  gerund  of  monosyllabic  verbs,  e.g.,  to  done,  F  334 
h.  In  the  present  participle  of  strong  and  weak  verbs 

Final  e  interchanging  with  en  occurs: 
i.   In  the  present  indicative  plural  of  strong  and  weak  verbs 
j.   In  the  preterit  indicative  plural  of  strong  and  weak  verbs 
k.  In  the  present  subjunctive  plural  of  strong  and  weak  verbs 
1.    In  the  preterit  subjunctive  plural  of  strong  and  weak  verbs 
m.  In  the  infinitive  and  gerund  of  strong  and  weak  verbs 
n.  In  the  past  participle  of  strong  verbs^^ 

37.     Etymological  Final  e.     Etymological  final  e  occurs  in  nouns, 
adjectives,  pronouns,  adverbs,  prepositions,  and  conjunctions. 
1.  Nouns 

Final  e  occurs: 

a.  In  nouns  derived  from  Old  English  nouns  which  ended  in  a 

vowel  (a,  e,  or  u);  e.g.,  tyme,  from  OE  tima  (A  44);  sonne, 
from  OE  sunne  (A  7) ;  tale,  from  OE  talu  (A  36) 

b.  In  nouns  derived  from  Old  English  feminine  nouns  which 

ended  in  a  consonant;  e.g.,  reste,  from  OE  rest,  fem.  (A  30) 

c.  In  some  nouns  derived  from  Old  EngHsh  nouns  ending  in  -en; 

e.g.,  mayde,  from  OE  mse^den  (A  69) 

d.  In  nouns  derived  from  Old  French  nouns  ending  in  e;  e.g., 

corage,  from  OFr  corage  (A  22) 

'2  For  simplicity  the  preteritive-present  verbs,  are  ignored  in  this  paragraph. 
Their  preterits  are  like  those  of  weak  verbs,  and  their  present  indicative  plural  either 
has  the  ending  -e(n)  or  is  without  ending.     (See  33  above.) 


34  FINAL  e  IN  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE 

e.  In  the  "petrified"  dative  which  occurs  in  certain  phrases 
consisting  of  a  preposition  immediately  followed  by  a  noun; 
e.g.,  out  of  towne  (A  566)^^ 

2.  Adjectives 
Final  e  occurs: 

a.  In  adjectives  derived  from  Old  English  adjectives  ending  in 

e;  e.g.,  lene,  from  OE  hl«ne  (A  287) 

b.  In  the  comparative  form  of  a  few  adjectives;  e.g.,  more,  from 

OE  mara,  mare^^ 

c.  In  the  "petrified"  dative  which  occurs  in  certain  phrases 

consisting  of  a  preposition  immediately  followed  by  an 
adjective  used  as  a  noun;  e.g.,  with-alle  (A  127) 

d.  In  adjectives  derived  from  Old  French  adjectives  ending  in  e; 

e.g.,  straunge,  from  OFr  estrange  (A  13) 

3.  Pronouns 

Final  e  is  usually  written  and  occasionally  pronounced  in  cure, 
from  OE  ure;  in  hire,  here  {her),  from  OE  hire;  and  in 
hire,  here  {their)  from  OE  hira,  heora 

4.  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  and  Conjunctions 
Final  e  occurs: 

a.  In  adverbs  derived  from  adjectives;  e.g.,  faire  (A  94),  from  the 

adjective  fair  (A  154) 

b.  In  adverbs,  prepositions,  and  conjunctions  whose  originals 

had  a  final  vowel  in  Old  English;  e.g.,  sone,  from  OE  sona 
(B  1702);  thanne,  from  OE  bonne  (D  2004);  inne,  from  OE 
inne  (A  41);  whanne,  from  OE  hwonne  (F  1406) 

c.  In  adverbs,  prepositions,  and  conjunctions  whose  originals  in 

Old  English  ended  in  -an;  e.g.,  bifore,  from  OE  beforan 
(A  377);  with-oute,  from  OE  wifjutan  (A  343);  sithe,  from 
OE  sibban 

••  The  final  e  in  of  towne  is  not  a  genuine  inflection  in  the  English  of  Chaucer's 
time.  In  early  Middle  English  the  dative  singular  always  ended  in  e,  but  in  the 
course  of  time  the  accusative  was  substituted  for  the  dative  wherever  the  two  cases 
differed  in  form.  A  few  phrases,  however,  like  of  towne,  on  live,  to  bedde,  etc.,  were 
in  such  constant  use  that  they  resisted  change  and  were  preserved  unaltered  long 
after  the  dative  form  had  become  obsolete  in  the  language  as  a  whole.  We  find  there- 
fore that  Chaucer  says  of  towne  in  A  566,  but  of  the  toun  in  A  217. 

**  The  usual  comparative  ending  is  -er. 


FINAL  e  IX  CHAUCER'S  LANGUAGE  35 

38.  Inorganic  Final  e.  A  few  nouns  and  adjectives  in  Middle 
English  had  final  e's  (not  inflectional)  which  cannot  be  explained  upon 
any  of  the  grounds  stated  in  37;  e.g.,  gate  (C  729),  from  OE  geat,  neut.; 
dale  (B  4013),  from  OE  d«l,  neut.;  weye  (B  385),  from  OE  weg,  masc; 
pere  (F  678),  from  OFr  per;  bare  (A  683),  from  OE  baer;  harde  (D  2228), 
from  OE  heard.  Such  final  e's  we  call  inorganic  final  e's.  These  words 
acquired  final  e  in  early  Middle  English  as  the  result  of  some  analogy 
or  association  which  in  most  cases  we  are  not  able  to  trace  with  certainty. 

39.  Scribal  e's.  Occasionally  even  in  the  best  and  earliest  manu- 
scripts of  Chaucer,  and  frequently  in  the  poorer  and  later  manuscripts, 
final  e's  are  written  which  were  never  pronounced  in  Aliddle  English. 
Such  e's  we  call  scribal  e's.  An  example  is  month  (A  92),  from  OE 
monaj),  masc;  the  word  is  written  wdth  final  e  in  the  EUesmere  manu- 
script, but  is  never  pronounced  with  final  e  in  Chaucer  or  in  the  language 
of  any  other  Middle  English  writer. 

40.  Elision,  Apocope,  and  Syncope.  If  one  pronounces  in  reading 
Chaucer's  verse  all  the  final  e's  that  are  grammatically  or  etymologically 
justifiable,  the  metrical  structure  of  the  verse  is  often  seriously  impaired 
or  entirely  destroyed.  It  is  clear  that  Chaucer  did  not  intend  that  every 
possible  final  e  should  be  sounded.  Final  e  is  usually  elided  when  the 
following  word  begins  with  a  vowel  or  "weak  h";^"  e.g.,  in  couthe  (A  14) 
and  dresse  (A  106).  Moreover,  final  e  is  often  lost  before  words  begin- 
ning wth  a  consonant;  e.g.,  wiste  (A  224),  tyme  (A  102),  mete  (A  136). 
The  loss  of  final  e  before  consonants  is  called  apocope  or  apocopation. 
This  is  to  be  distinguished  from  syncope  or  syncopation,  which  is  the 
loss  of  a  vowel  between  two  consonants  of  the  same  word;  e.g.,  ''Cometh 
neer, "  qtwd  he,  "my  lady  prioresse"  (A  839).  In  using  apocopated  forms 
in  his  verse,  however,  Chaucer  was  not  doing  violence  to  the  language 
of  his  time,  as  a  modern  writer  would  be  doing  if  he  omitted  the  final 
vowel  of  navy  or  china.  In  Chaucer's  time  the  final  e  was  beginning 
to  be  lost,  and  by  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  it  had  entirely  dis- 
appeared from  the  language.  In  Chaucer's  time  the  final  e  was  still 
pronounced,  but  not  universally,  so  that  forms  both  with  and  without 
final  e  were  in  use.  Chaucer,  therefore,  tho  he  generally  preferred  the 
forms  with  final  e,  used  the  forms  without  final  e  when  it  suited  him  to 
do  so.    He  always  used  the  forms  with  final  e  in  nme. 

^  "Weak  h"  is  the  h  in  words  like  he,  him,  hem,  her,  hath,  hadde,  etc.,  in  which 
the  h  was  pronounced  only  when  the  word  was  strongly  stressed,  and  the  silent  h  in 
French  words  like  honour,  etc. 


PART  III 

THE  HISTORY  OF  ENGLISH  SOUNDS 

40.     Pronunciation  of  Old  English.    The  pronunciation  of  the  Old 
English  vowels  and  diphthongs  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


OE  Spelling 

Pronunciation 

Examples 

a 

[a] 

Stan,  stone  [stan] 

a 

[a] 

man,  man  [man] 

X 

[?] 

hse\>,  heath  [h^\>] 

X 

[ae] 

\>set,  that  [M] 

e 

[e] 

swete,  sweet  [swetg] 

e 

[«] 

helpan,  help  [h^lpan] 

i 

[i] 

ridan,  ride  [ridan] 

i 

[i] 

drincan,  drink  [drigkan] 

0 

[o] 

don,  do  [don] 

0 

[q] 

crop,  crop  [krqp] 

u 

[u] 

bus,  house  [hiis] 

u 

[u] 

sunu,  son  [sunu] 

y 

[y] 

iyr,fire  [fyr] 

y 

[y] 

l^ynne,  thin  [bynng] 

ea 

m 

stream,    stream  [stream] 

ea 

[ae9] 

hearpe,    harp  [hfearp?] 

eo 

[eo] 

beon,  be  [beon] 

eo 

M 

weorc,  work  [wgork] 

ie 

[ia] 

bieran,  hear  [biaran] 

ie 

[ia] 

ieldra,  elder  [iaidra] 

The  pronunciation  of  the  Old  English  consonants  is  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table: 


OE  Spelling 

Pronunciation 

Examples 

c 

[k] 

cepan,  keep  [kepan] 

c 

m 

cidan,  chide  [tfldan] 

PRONUNCIATION  OF  OLD  ENGLISH  37 


OE  Spelling 

Pronunciation 

Examples 

eg 

[d?] 

brycg,  bridge  [bryd^] 

g 

[s] 

boga,  bow  [bQja] 

i 

■   [J] 

iiefan,  give  [jiavan] 

ng 

[flg] 

singan,  sing  [siijgan] 

sc 

[f] 

scip,  ship  [fip] 

h  before  consonants  and  after  vowels  is  pronounced  like  ch  in  Ger- 
man ich,  nacht;  e.g.,  niht,  night,  heah,  high. 

i  and  s  are  pronounced  like  [v]  and  [z]  when  they  occur  between 
vowels,  as  in  §iefan,  give,  and  risan,  rise;  like  [f]  and  [s]  when  they  are 
initial  or  final,  as  in  faeder,  father,  staef,  staff,  sunu,  son,  waes,  was. 

J>  and  S  are  used  without  distinction  for  the  sounds  [1j]  and  ['5].  They 
are  pronounced  like  [S]  when  they  occur  between  vowels,  as  in  cuSe, 
knew,  like  []?]  when  they  are  initial  or  final,  as  in  l>aet,  that,  cuj?,  known. 

r  is  strongly  trilled  with  the  tip  of  the  tongue. 

The  other  Old  English  consonants  are  pronounced  as  in  Modern 
English.  But  double  consonants  were  pronounced  double,  as  in  Modern 
English  pen-knife,  book-case. 

41.  Old  English  in  Phonetic  Notation.  The  Old  English  version 
of  the  parable  of  the  Good  Samaritan,  Luke  10:30-35,  in  the  Old  English 
spelling  and  accompanied  by  a  literal  translation,  is  as  follows: 

Sum      man  ferde  fram  Hierusalem  to  Hiericho  and  becom  on 
A-certain  man  went  from  Jerusalem    to  Jericho    and  fell        among 

)7a  scaSan,  \>a.    hine  bereafodon  and  tintregodon  hine  and  forleton 
the  thieves,  who  him  robbed       and      tortured      him    and  left 

hine  samcwicne.     pa     gebyrede   hit  J^set  sum         sacerd  ferde  on 
him   half-alive.     Then  happened  it     that  a-certain  priest  went   on 

J?am  ilcan  wege;and|?a     he  )?£et    geseah,   he  hine  forbeah. 

the    same  way;  and  when  he  that  saw,      he  from-him  turned-away. 

And  eall  swa  se    diacon,    )>a     he  waes   wiS  ^a,  stowe  and  Jjaet  geseah. 
And  all   so     the  deacon,  when  he  was  by    the  place    and  that  saw, 

he  hine  eac  forbeah.  J)  a      ferde   sum        Samaritanisc 

he  from-him  also  turned-away.    Then  went  a-certain  Samaritan 

man    wiS  hine;    ]>a.       he  hine '^fgeseah,    3a      wearS      he  mid 

man    opposite     him;    when    he  him^^saw,        then  became    he  with 


38  PRONUNCIATION  OF  OLD  ENGLISH 

mildheortnesse  ofer    hine   astyred.     J)a       genealaehte  he  and  wracS 
pity  over  him    moved.      Then  approached   he  and  bound 

his  wunda   and  on    ageat    ele  and  win  and  hine   on  his  nleten    sette 
his  wounds  and  in    poured  oil  and  wine  and  him    on  his  beast      set 

and  gelsedde  on    his  Isecehtis  and  hine  lacnode;  and  brohte  ojjrum 
and  took        into  his  hospital  and  him  treated;  and  brought  the-next 

daege  twegen  peningas  and  sealde  Jjam     Isece  and  }7us    cwaeS, 

day    two       pennies    and  gave    to-the  physician  and  thus  said, 

"Beglem  his;   and  sw a  hwaet  sw a  )?u     mare  to  gedest, 

"Take-care-of  him;  and      whatever      thou  more   in-addition  doest, 

))onne  id  cume,  ic  hit    forgielde  J^e. " 

when   I  come,   I  it    shall-repay  thee. " 

Transcribed  in  phonetic  notation  the  Old  English  passage  just  given  is 
as  follows: 

sum  man  ferdg  fram  hiaruzalgm  to  hiarikg  and  bgkom  qu  \>a.  faSan,  pa. 
hing  bgrfavgdQn  and  tintrgsodgn  hing  and  fgrletgn  hing  samkwikng. 
pa.  jgbyrgdg  hit  )?aet  sum  sakgrd  ferdg  gn  Jjam  ilkan  wgjg;  and  Ipa.  he  )?aet 
jgsaeah,  he  hing  fgrbgah.  and  aeall  swa  se  diakgn,  pa  he  waes  wij?  J?a 
stowg  and  pxt  jgsaeah,  he  hing  gak  fgrbgah.  J?a  ferdg  sum  samaritanif 
man  mp  hing;  }7a  he  hing  jgsaeah,  )3a  waear)?  he  mid  mildhgortngssg  gvgr 
hing  astyrgd.  )7a  jgnfalghtg  he  and  wrap  his  wunda  and  gn  ajgat  gig 
and  win  and  hing  gn  his  niatgn  sgttg  and  jglgddg  gn  his  Igtfghus  and  hing 
lakngdg;  and  brohtg  oSrum  daejg  twejgn  pgniggas  and  saegldg  J>am  l|tfg 
and  Jjus  kwsep,  "bgjlam  his;  and  swa  hwaet  swa  )7u  marg  to  jgdest, 
t)gnng  itf  kumg,  itf  hit  fgrjialdg  )?e." 

42.  Normal  Development  of  Old  English  Vowels.  The  normal 
development^^  of  the  Old  English  vowel  sounds  in  the  Midland  dialect 
of  Middle  English  and  of  the  Middle  English  sounds  in  Modern  EngHsh 
is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

^  The  normal  development  of  a  vowel  is  that  which  took  place  when  its  develop- 
ment was  not  afifected  by  the  influence  of  neighboring  sounds  or  by  changes  of  quantity. 
An  account  of  the  changes  that  took  place  in  the  English  vowel  sounds  as  a  result  of 
these  special  conditions  will  be  found  below  in  sections  43  and  44. 


NORMAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  OLD  ENGLISH  VOWELS 


39 


Old  English" 

Middle  English 

Modern  English 

a 

[5] 

Stan 

[stan] 

[q] 

ston 

[stQn] 

[5]39c 

[ston] 

a 

[a] 

l^anc 

[baok 

[a] 

thank 

[bagk] 

[«] 

[baegk] 

ae 

[ae] 

jjat 

[M] 

[a] 

that 

[hat] 

[«] 

[Siet] 

sb 

[?] 

IiJe|> 

[h§W 

[?] 

heeth 

[h?b] 

[i]39c 

[hib] 

e 

[e]3« 

sM'ete 

[swet^] 

[e]38 

swete 

[sweta] 

[i]39e 

[swit] 

e 

k] 

helpan 

[hglpan] 

k] 

helpe(n) 

[helpan] 

[?] 

[help] 

i 

[i]38 

ridan 

[ridan] 

[ips 

ride(n) 

[ridan] 

[ai] 

[raid] 

i 

[i] 

drincan 

[drigkan]  [i] 

drinke(n) 

[drigkan 

]  [i] 

[drigk] 

0 

[6]3« 

foda 

[foda] 

[or 

fode 

[foda] 

[U]39c 

[fsd] 

0 

[q] 

oxa 

[Qksa] 

[q] 

oxe 

[Qksa] 

[a]3="^ 

[aks] 

u 

[u]3« 

hus 

[hus] 

[nV 

hous 

[hus] 

[au] 

[haus] 

u 

[u] 

sunu 

[sunu] 

[u] 

sone 

[suna] 

[a] 

[sAn] 

y 

[y] 

fyr 

[fyr] 

[i] 

fyr 

[fir] 

[ai] 

[fair] 

y 

[y] 

fyllan 

[fyllan] 

[i] 

fille(n) 

[fillan] 

[i] 

[fil] 

ea 

[€9] 

stream 

[stream] 

[|] 

streem 

[strgm] 

[ij39c 

[strim] 

ea 

[aea; 

eami 

[aearm] 

[a] 

arm 

[sLimr'- 

eo 

[eo] 

beon 

[beon] 

[6]^^=^ 

bee(n) 

[ben] 

[J]39c 

[bi] 

eo 

[€0] 

weorc 

[wgork] 

kr^ 

werk 

[w€rk]39b 

yvK  ^ 


"  The  Old  English  sounds  which  are  taken  as  the  basis  of  this  table  are  those  of 
the  Mercian  dialect,  which  was  that  from  which  the  Midland  dialect  of  Middle  Eng- 
lish was  derived.  The  sounds  of  the  Mercian  dialect  differed  in  certain  respects  from 
those  of  West-Saxon,  which  is  the  dialect  in  which  most  of  the  Old  English  literature  is 
preserved  and  upon  which  the  Old  EngUsh  dictionaries  are  based.  For  example,  the 
Mercian  dialect  did  not  contain  the  West-Saxon  diphthongs  ie  and  ie,  and  it  had  the 
vowel  e  in  many  words  which  in  West-Saxon  have  the  vowel  x;  e.g.,  West-Saxon  d«d 
was  Mercian  ded.     In  the  Mercian  dialect  the  vowel  sb  was  always  the  result  of  umlaut. 

38  The  Modern  English  sounds  given  as  the  equivalents  of  Old  and  Middle  English 
e,  i,  5,  and  u  are  only  approximate  equivalents,  for  (as  explained  above  in  note  10)  the 
Modern  EngHsh  sounds  which  we  have  represented  by  the  symbols  [e],  [i],  [6],  and  [u] 
are  in  reality  diphthongs,  not  simple  vowels.  Old  and  Middle  English  e,  i,  5,  and  u 
were  simple  vowels,  pronounced  like  the  corresponding  vowels  of  Modern  German. 

39*  It  is  probable  that  OE  eo  and  eo  first  changed  (at  least  in  some  locaUties)  to 
early  ME  [ce]  and  [oe],  and  that  [oe]  and  [oe]  developed  later  into  [e]  and  [e].  The  sym- 
bols [ce]  and  [oe]  represent  respectively  the  vowels  of  German  horen  and  worter. 

^s*"  The  Modem  English  development  of  the  vowel  in  this  word  is  due  to  the 
that  follows  it;  see  44,  1  below. 

""  The  Modem  English  sounds  which  we  represent  by  the  symbols  [e]  [i],  [o]  and 
[u]  are  in  reaUty,  as  explained  above  in  notes  3S  and  10,  diphthongs,  not  simple  vowels. 

3"^  ME  [q],  or  a  vowel  much  like  it.  has  been  preserved  in  the  speech  of  England 
and  New  England,  but  it  has  become  [a]  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States. 


40 


SPECIAL  DEVELOPMENTS  IN  MIDDLE  ENGLISH 


The  following  table  shows  the  normal  development  in  Modern  English 
of  certain  sounds  which  developed  in  Middle  English  as  the  result  of 
certain  special  conditions  which  will  be  explained  below  in  section  43. 


Middle  EngUsh 

Modern  Enghsh 

[5] 

name 

[namd] 

[er 

[nem] 

[au] 

faught 

[fauht] 

[Q] 

im 

ki] 

they 

[bei] 

[e]4o 

im 

[«u] 

fewe 

[fgua] 

[J5] 

[fju] 

[iu] 

humour 

[hiumur] 

,  rude  [riuda] 

[ju]  or 

[u]  [hjumar],  [rud] 

[Qi] 

boy 

[bQi] 

[Qi] 

[bQi] 

[qu] 

bowe 

[bQua] 

[6]^« 

[bo] 

[qu] 

thoght 

[bQuht] 

[q] 

[m 

43.  Special  Developments  in  Middle  English.  The  most  important 
special  developments  of  the  Old  Enghsh  vowel  sounds  in  Middle  EngUsh 
are  as  follows: 

1.  Changes  in  the  quantity  of  vowels. 

a.  Shortening  of  long  vowels.  Old  Enghsh  long  vowels  were  shortened 
in  early  Middle  English  (before  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century)  when 
they  were  followed  by  a  double  consonant  or  by  a  group  of  two  or  more 
consonants;"^  e.g.,  OE  Isedde,  ME  ledde  [l^dda];  OE  lassa,  ME  lesse 
[Igssa];  OE  cepte,  ME  kepte  [kgpta];  OE  wisdom,  ME  wisdom  [wisdom]. 

Old  Enghsh  long  vowels  were  also  frequently  shortened  in  Middle 
Enghsh  when  the  second  syllable  of  the  word  was  [I];  e.g.,  OE  aenig, 
ME  eny  [§ni];  OE  sarig,  ME  sory  [sQri]. 


*"  The  Modern  English  sounds  which  we  represent  by  the  symbols  e  and  o  are 
in  reality,  as  explained  above  in  notes  38  and  10,  diphthongs,  not  simple  vowels. 

^'  Shortening  of  long  vowels  did  not  take  place,  however,  before  the  consonant 
groups  (see  note  42  below)  which  caused  lengthening  in  late  Old  English.  Nor  did 
it  take  place  before  the  combination  st  imless  a  third  consonant  followed;  it  is  for  this 
reason  that  we  have  MnE  [kraist]  from  Old  English  Crist,  but  MnE  [krismas]  from 
Old  English   cristmaesse. 


SPECIAL  DEVELOPMENTS  IN  MIDDLE  ENGLISH  41 

b.  Lengthening  of  short  vowels.^^  In  the  thirteenth  century  the 
short  vowels  a,  e,  and  o  were  lengthened  in  open  syllables/^^  so  that  a 
became  [a],''^''  e  became  [g],  and  q  became  [q];  e.g.,  OE  nama,  ME  name 
[nama];  OE  faeder,  ME  fader  [fadar];  OE  mete,  ME  mete  [mgtaj;  OE 
stolen,  ME  stolen  [stQlan].  This  lengthening  did  not  take  place,  how- 
ever, when  the  second  syllable  of  the  word  was  [i];  e.g.,  OE  hefig,  ME 
hevy  [hgvi];  OE  bodig,  ME  body  [bgdi].  And  we  often  find  short  a, 
e,  and  o  in  open  syllables  when  the  second  syllable  of  the  word  ended  in 

1,  r,  m,  or  n;  e.g.,  OE  sadol,  ME  sadel  [sadal];  OE  waeter,  ME  water 
[watar];  OE  heofon,  ME  heven  [hgvan]. 

2.  Development  of  new  diphthongs. 

As  may  be  seen  from  the  table  of  sound  changes  given  above  in  section 
42,  the  Old  English  diphthongs  ea,  ea,  eo,  and  eo  became  simple  vowels 
in  Middle  English.  In  Middle  English,  however,  there  developed  a  new 
series  of  diphthongs:  [ai],  [gi],  [au],  [^u],  [iu],  [gi],  [qu],  and  [qu].  The 
principal  sources  of  these  diphthongs  in  the  Midland  dialect  were  as 
follows: 

[ai]  developed  out  of  Old  EngHsh  ae  followed  by  [j],  spelled  g;  e.g., 
OE  daeg  [daej],  ME  dai;  OE  saegde  [sfejdg],  ME  saide.  In  early  Middle 
English  this  diphthong  had  the  sound  of  [ai],  but  in  late  Middle  English 
it  became  identical  in  sound  with  the  diphthong  [gi]. 

*-  In  late  Old  English  all  short  vowels  were  lengthened  when  they  were  followed 
by  one  of  the  consonant  combinations  Id,  mb,  nd,  ng,  rd,  rn,  and  rtJ.  Many  long 
vowels  which  originated  in  this  way  remained  long  thruout  the  Middle  English  period 
and  have  developed  in  Modern  English  like  the  other  Middle  Enghsh  long  vowels;  e.g., 
OE  feld,  ME  feeld  [feld],  MnE  [fild];  OE  findan,  ME  finde(n)  [finden],  MnE  [falndj; 
OE  grund,  ME  ground  [grund],  MnE  [graund].  Modern  English  [5ld]  is  from  Middle 
English  [Qld],  which  developed  regularly  from  late  Old  EngUsh  aid,  eariier  aid  (West- 
Saxon  eald).  But  in  a  great  many  words  these  lengthened  vowels  were  shortened  in 
Middle  English.  Shortening  always  occurred  when  the  consonant  group  was  followed 
by  a  third  consonant;  e.g.,  OE  cild,  MnE  [tfaild]  from  ME  [tfild],  but  MnE  [tfUdran] 
from  ME  [tfildran]. 

*'   For  a  definition  of  open  syllable  see  note  22  above. 

*^^  Previous  to  the  period  when  short  vowels  were  lengthened  in  open  syllables, 
Old  English  a  had  become  [q]  in  Middle  EngHsh,  and  for  a  certain  period,  therefore,  the 
sound  [a]  did  not  e.xist  in  the  language.  But  when  a  was  lengthened  in  open  syllables 
the  sound  [a]  was  reintroduced.   The  [a]  which  originated  in  this  way  never  became  [q]. 


42  SPECIAL  DEVELOPMENTS  IN  MIDDLE  ENGLISH 

[fi]  developed  out  of  Old  English  e,  e  or  se,  followed  by  [j],  spelled 
g;  e.g.,  OE  we^  [wgj],  ME  wey  [wgi];  OE  twegen  [twejgn],  ME  tweie(n); 
OE  ieg  [|j],  ME  ei  [^i]. 

[au]  developed: 

(1)  out  of  Old  English  a  followed  by  w;e.g.,OE  clawu  [klawu],  ME 
clawe  [klaud]; 

(2)  out  of  Old  English  a  followed  by  [5],  spelled  g;'"  e.g.,  OE  dragan 
[drasan],  IME  drawe(n)  [drauan]; 

(3)  out  of  Old  English  ea  followed  by  h;  e.g.,  OE  feaht,  ME  f aught 
[fauht]. 

[§u]  developed  out  of  Old  English  ea  followed  by  w;  e.g.,  OE  feawe 
[fgawa],  ME  fewe  [fgua]. 

[iu]  developed  out  of  Old  English  i  followed  by  w;  e.g.,  OE  stiweard 
[stiwaeard],  ME  stiward  [stiuard].  But  the  commonest  source  of  [iu]  in 
Middle  EngHsh  was  the  French  vowel  [y],  which  was  written  u.  The 
sound  [y]  did  not  occur  in  the  jMidland  dialect  of  Middle  English,  and 
therefore  French  loan-words  which  contained  this  sound  were  pronounced 
with  the  diphthong  [iu],  which  was  the  nearest  English  equivalent;  e.g. 
ME  nature  [natiura],  from  Old  French  nature  [natyra]." 

[Qi]  occurs  almost  exclusively  in  French  loan  words;  e.g.,  ME  joie 
from  Old  French  joie. 

[qu]  developed: 

(1)  out  of  Old  English  a  or  6  followed  by  w;  e.g.,  OE  cnawan  [knawan], 
Middle  English  knowe(n)  [kuQusn];  OE  growan  [growan],  ME  growe(n) 
[grQuan]. 

*•  This  sound,  the  g  of  North  German  sagen,  is  not  a  stop  consonant  (like  g  in  go) 
but  an  open  consonant  or  spirant  which  somewhat  resembles  English  w  but  is  made 
without  any  rounding  of  the  lips. 

*^  A  diphthong  spelled  ew  also  developed  out  of  OE  eo  followed  by  w,  e.g.,  in  ME 
knew  from  OE  cneow.  Some  scholars  are  of  opinion  that  this  diphthong  had  the 
sound  of  [eu]  or  [eu].  It  no  doubt  had  this  sound  in  very  early  ME,  but  it  seems 
probable  that  in  Chaucer's  time  it  had  become  [iu].  This  may  be  inferred  from  the 
fact  that  French  loan  words  which  had  [y]  in  Old  French  are  very  frequently  spelled 
in  Middle  English  with  ew  instead  of  u,  e.g.,  vertew,  crewel,  instead  of  vertu,  cruel, 
and  also  from  the  fact  that  the  [iu]  which  developed  in  INIE  out  of  OE  iw  was  also 
spelled  ew  or  u  instead  of  iw  or  iu,  e.g.,  steward  and  Tuesday  (from  OE  Tiwes  dae^). 


SPECIAL  DEVELOPMENTS  IN  MODERN  ENGLISH  43 

(2)  out  of  Old  English  a  followed  by  [5],  spelled  g;  e.g.,  OE  agen 
[ajgn],  ME  owe(n)  [Quan]. 

(3)  out  of  Old  English  o  when  it  was  in  an  open  syllable  followed  by 
[jj;  e.g.,  OE  boga  [bQja^,  ME  bowe  [bgua]. 

[qu]  developed  out  of  Old  English  o,  6,  or  a  followed  by  ht;  e.g.,  OE 
bohte,  ME  boughte  [bQuhta];  OE  sohte,  ME  soghte  [sQuhta];  OE  ahte, 
ME  oughte  [Quht9].^« 

44.  Special  Developments  in  Modern  English.  The  normal  devel- 
opment of  the  Middle  English  vowel  sounds  in  Modern  English  has  been 
shown  above  in  section  42.  The  most  important  special  developments 
that  took  place  as  the  result  of  the  influence  of  neighboring  sounds  or 
changes  of  quantity  are  these: 

1.  Special  developments  before  r 

Middle  English  [§]  followed  by  r  often  changed  to  [a]  in  late  Middle 
English  or  very  early  Modern  English  and  later  developed  into  [a];  e.g., 
ME  sterve(n)  [stgrvan],  early  MnE  [starv],  MnE  [starv]. 

Middle  English  [a]  followed  by  r  has  become  [a]  in  Modern  English; 
e.g.,  ME  hard  [hard],  MnE  [hard]. 

Middle  English  [q]  followed  by  r  has  become  [q]  in  Modern  English; 
e.g.,  ME  for  [iqr],  MnE  [fQr]. 

Middle  English  [ir]  and  [ur]  have  regularly,  and  Middle  English  [gr] 
has  frequently,  become  [ar]  in  Modern  English;  e.g.,  ME  first  [first], 
MnE  [farst];  ME  curse(n)  [kursan],  MnE  [ksrs];  ME  lerned  [l^rnad], 
MnE  [larnad]. 

Middle  English  [a]  and  [gi]  followed  by  r  have  become  Modern  Eng- 
lish [f];  ME  spare(n)  [sparan],  MnE  [sp§r];ME  fair  [fgir],  MnE  [fgr]. 

Middle  English  [?]  has  frequencly  been  preserved  before  r  in  Modern 
English;  e.g.,  ME  bere(n)  [bfran],  MnE  [b§r]. 

Modern  English  [1]  and  [u]  before  r,  for  example  in  [hir]  and  [fur] 
are  not  the  [i]  and  [u]  of  [It]  and  [but],  but  a  little  more  open;  in  quahty 
they  approximate  to  lengthened  [i]  and  [u]. 


*'  The  6  of  OE  sohte  was  shortened  before  ht  (se;  43,  la  above) ;  the  a  of  OE  ahte 
first  became  [q]  and  was  then  shortened  to  [q]  before  the  ht. 


44  SPECIAL  DEVELOPMENTS  IN  MODERN  ENGLISH 

Middle  English  [6]  and  [q]  followed  by  r  have  become  [q]  in  Modern 
Enghsh;  e.g.,  ME  swoor  [swor],  MnE  [swQr],  ME  more  [mQra],  MnE 
[mgr]." 

2.  Special  developments  before  I. 

Middle  English  [a]  followed  by  I  plus  another  consonant  or  final  1 
was  diphthongised  to  [au]  in  early  Modern  Enghsh;  this  diphthong  then 
developed,  like  Middle  English  [au],  into  [q];  e.g.,  ME  smal  [smal],  early 
MnE  [smaul],  MnE  [sdiqI];  ME  bald  [bald],  early  MnE  [bauld],  MnE 
[hqldV 

Middle  English  [q]  followed  by  1  was  diphthongised  to  [qu]  in  early 
Modern  English;  this  diphthong  then  developed,  like  Middle  Enghsh 
[qu],  into  Modern  English  [6];  e.g.,  ME  folk  [f^lk],  early  MnE  [iqulk], 
MnE  [fok]. 

3.  Special  developments  after  [w]. 

When  preceded  by  w  Middle  English  [a]  (including  the  [a]  which 
developed  from  [g]  before  r)  became  [q]  in  the  seventeenth  century  and 
has  since  developed  into  Modern  English  [q]  or  [a];  e.g.,  ME  water 
[watar],  MnE  [wQtr];  ME  warm  [warm],  MnE  [wgrm];  ME  washen 
[wafan],  MnE  [waf].^^ 

4.  Development  of  Modern  English  [a]. 

In  standard  British  English  and  in  the  dialect  of  southern  New  Eng- 
land, Middle  Enghsh  [a]  has  developed  with  more  or  less  regularity  into 
[a]  when  followed  by 


Im, 

e.g., 

MnE    [kam 

M, 

)) 

"       [kaf] 

Iv, 

)) 

"       [sav] 

[f],  final 

J) 

"       [tfaf] 

*'  Long  vowels  before  r  in  Modern  English  are  really  diphthongs  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree;  e.g.,  starve,  for,  fair,  hear,  and  sure  are  rather  [staarv],  [fQsr],  [f^ar],  [hiar], 
and  [fuar]  than  [starv],  [iqr],  [f|r],  [hir],  and  [fur]. 

*'But  before  Im,  If,  and  Iv  Middle  English  [a]  has  developed  into  [a]  or  [|];  see 
44,  4  below. 

*'  British  standard  English  has  [q]  for  American  [a]  in  these  words,  but  both  in 
England  and  America  there  is  a  good  deal  of  fluctuation  between  [§]  and  [q]  or  [a]. 


SPECIAL  DEVELOPMENTS  IN  MODERN  ENGLISH 


45 


m, 

e.g., 

Ml 

lE    [fatSar] 

[W, 

j> 

'       [paW 

[ft], 

» 

[aftar] 

[s],  final 

,, 

'       [gias] 

St, 

» 

[past] 

sk, 

5> 

'       [ask] 

sp, 

JJ 

'       [klasp] 

[sf], 

,J 

'       [blasflm] 

mp, 

„ 

'       [§gzampl] 

nt, 

,, 

[tfant] 

nd, 

,, 

'       [ksmand] 

[ns] 

,, 

'       [dans] 

[ntf], 

,, 

[stantf] 

In  American  English  the  great  majority  of  these  words  have  the  vowel 
[ae]  or  [?],  e.g.,  [pse\>],  [pl\)];  [aesk],  [?sk],  etc. 

5.  Preservation  of  Middle  English  [u]  and  [u]. 

Middle  English  [u]  has  been  preserved  in  Modern  English  before  lip 
consonants  (b,  p,  m,  f,  v);  e.g.,  ME  stoupe(n)  [stupan],  MnE  [stup];  ME 
toumbe  [tumba],  MnE  [turn].  In  some  words  this  [u]  before  lip  con- 
sonants was  shortened  to  [u]  and  afterwards  changed  to  [a];  e.g.,  ME 
shouve(n)  [fuvan],  MnE  [Iav];  ME  double  [dubal],  MnE  [dAbI];  ME 
roum  [rum],  MnE  [rum],  also  [rum]. 

Middle  EngHsh  [u]  has  been  preserved  in  Modern  English  under  the 
following  circumstances:  regularly  between  lip  consonants  and  I;  e.g.,, 
ME  bole  [bula],  MnE  [bul];  ME  ful  [ful],  MnE  [ful];  ME  wolf  [wulf], 
MnE  [wulf];  and  frequently  between  lip  consonants  and  consonants 
other  than  1;  e.g.,  ME  wode  [wuda],  MnE  [wud];  ME  putte(n)  [puttan], 
MnE  [put]. 

6.  [u]  for  Middle  English  [iu]. 

Middle  English  [iu]  has  become  [u]  under  the  following  circumstances: 
regularly  after  r,  and  after  1  preceded  by  another  consonant;  e.g.,  ME 
rude  [riuda],  MnE  [rud];  ME  blew  [bliu],  MnE  [blu];  and  frequently  after 
I,  s,  t,  d,  and  n;  e.g.,  ME  lute  [liuta],  MnE  [lutj;  ME  Susanne  [siuzanna], 
MnE  [suzan];  ME  Tuesday  [tiuasdgi],  MnE  (especially  American^ 
[tuzdi];  ME  due  [diua],  MnE  (especially  American)  [du];  ME  newe  [niua]^ 
MnE  (especially  American)  [nu]. 


46  SPECIAL  DEVELOPMENTS  IN  MODERN  ENGLISH 

7.  [i]  for  Middle  English  [5]. 

Middle  English  [g]  has  become  [i]  when  followed  by  n  plus  another 
consonant  or  combination  of  consonants  (not  [b]  or  [tf],  e.g.,  MnE 
strength,  bench);  e.g.,  ME  Engelond  [fggdlgnd],  MnE  [iggbnd]. 

8.  Shortening  of  Middle  English  [§]. 

Before  Middle  English  [§]  had  become  [i]  it  was  often  shortened  in 
Modern  English  when  it  was  followed  by  d,  t,  or  [\>];  e.g.,  ME  deed 
[did],  MnE  [d§d];  ME  swete(n)  [sw^tan],  MnE  [swgt];  ME  deeth  [d§b], 
MnE  [d€b]. 

9.  Shortening  of  [u]  from  Middle  English  [o]. 

After  Middle  English  [6]  had  become  [u],  the  [u]  was  in  a  great  many 
words  shortened  when  it  was  followed  by  d,  t,  or  k;  in  some  words  the 
result  of  this  shortening  is  [u],  but  in  others  the  [u]  has  undergone  the 
further  change  of  [u]  to  [a];  e.g.,  ME  good  [god],  MnE  [gud];  ME  blood 
[blod],  MnE  [bUd];  ME  foot  [fot],  MnE  [fut];  ME  book  [bok],  MnE  [buk]. 

10.  Lengthening  of  [i]  before  [h]. 

When  [h]  in  the  combination  ht  was  lost,  a  preceding  [i]  was  lengthened 
to  [i]  and  was  afterwards  changed  to  [ai];  e.g.,  ME  right  [riht],  MnE 
[rait]. 

11.  Lengthening  of  Middle  English  [q]  and  [a]. 

Middle  English  [q]  has  frequently  been  lengthened  in  Modern  Eng- 
Ush  to  [q]  when  followed  by  [f],  [s],  or  [bj;  e.g.,  ME  of  [qI],  MnE  [qi];  ME 
Ids  [Iqs],  MnE  [Iqs];  ME  motthe  [mgbba],  MnE  [mgb]- 

In  American  English,  Middle  English  [q]  has  commonly  been 
lengthened  to  [q]  when  followed  by  [gg];  e.g.,  ME  long  [Iggg],  MnE 
[Iqo];  it  is  also  often  lengthened  when  followed  by  [g];  e.g.,  ME  frogge 
[ffQgga],  MnE  [frgg],  also  [frag]  and  (in  New  England)  [frQg]. 

In  American  English,  Modern  EngHsh  [ae]  from  Middle  English  [a] 
has  commonly  been  lengthened  to  [g]  when  followed  by  d,  [g],  m,  n,  ng; 
e.g.,  ME  glad  [glad],  MnE  [gl|d],  ME  land  [land],  MnE  [l?nd];  ME 
»ang  [sagg],  MnE  [slg]. 


CONSONANT  SOUNDS  47 

45.  Vowels  in  Unaccented  Syllables.  The  sound  changes  which 
have  been  explained  in  the  preceding  sections  are  those  which  were 
undergone  by  vowels  in  accented  syllables.  The  changes  which  were 
undergone  in  Middle  EngUsh  by  the  Old  English  vowels  of  unaccented 
syllables  are  very  much  simpler  in  their  character,  and  will  be  considered 
later  in  connection  with  the  inflections  of  Middle  English.^" 

46.  Consonant  Sounds.  The  most  important  changes  that  have 
taken  place  in  the  consonant  sounds  of  English  are  these : 

1.  Middle  English  changes. 

Old  Enghsh  final  m  in  unstressed  syllables  became  Middle  English 
n;  e.g.,  OE  endum,  ME  enden. 

Final  n  was  very  frequently  lost  in  unstressed  syllables,  so  that  the 
common  inflectional  ending  -en  was  very  often  reduced  to  -e;  e.g.,  OE 
singan,  ME  singen  or  singe. 

Old  English  initial  hn,  wl,  hi,  and  hr  became  Middle  English  n,  I,  1, 
and  r;  e.g.,  OE  hnecca,  AIE  necke;  OE  wlispian,  ME  lispen;  OE  hlaf 
ME  lof;  OE  bring,  ME  ring. 

Old  EngHsh  initial  [j],  which  was  an  open  consonant  or  spirant,  be- 
came in  Middle  EngHsh  the  stop  consonant  [g];^^  e.g.,  OE  god  [jod],  ME 
good  [god].  But  when  it  was  preceded  by  a  consonant  and  followed  by 
a  vowel.  Old  English  [s]  became  [w];  e.g.,  OE  halgian,  ME  balwie(n). 

2.  Modern  Enghsh  changes. 

Initial  \\>]  changed  to  [3]  in  a  number  of  pronouns  and  particles  which 
were  commonly  pronounced  without  stress,  e.g.,  tbe,  tbey,  tbem,  thou, 
tbee,  tby,  that,  those,  this,  these,  then,  than,  there. 

Final  [f],  [s],  and  fb]  became  [v],  [z],  and  [3]  if  they  were  preceded  by 
a  vowel  that  was  without  stress  or  if  they  occurred  in  words  that  were 
commonly  pronounced  without  stress  in  the  sentence;  e.g.,  ME  actif, 
MnE  active;  ME  of  [qi],  MnE  [3y]f-  ME  faces  [fasas],  MnE  [fesaz]; 
ME  his  [his],  MnE  [hiz];  ME  with  [wij)],  MnE  [wiS]. 

^°  See  section  48  below. 

"  When  it  was  not  initial  but  was  preceded  by  a  vowel,  [5]  lost  its  consonantal 
quality  and  united  mth  the  vowel  to  form  a  diphthong;  see  section  43,  2  above. 

"Modem  EngUsh  off  [Qf]  is  the  stressed  form  of  of;  in  of  the  [f]  changed  to  [v] 
because  of  lack  of  stress,  but  in  off  the  [f]  remained  unchanged. 


48  CONSONANT  SOUNDS 

Initial  gn  and  kn  have  become  n  and  initial  wr  has  become  r ;  e.g.,  ME 
gnawe(n)  [gnauan],  MnE  [iiq];  ME  knight  [kniht],  MnE  [nait];  ME 
write(n)  [writan],  MnE  [rait]. 

Final  mb  has  been  reduced  to  m;  e.g.,  ME  domb  [dumb],  MnE  [d.vm]. 

Final  [gg]  has  been  reduced  to  [g];  e.g.,  ME  thing  [bigg],  MnE  [big]. 

1  has  been  lost  before  k  and  the  lip  consonants  m  and  f  when  the 
vowel  that  preceded  it  was  Middle  Enghsh  [a]  or  [q];  e.g.,  ME  talke(n) 
[talkan],  MnE  [tgk];  ME  folk  [fglk],  MnE  [fok];  ME  palm  [palm],  MnE 
[pam] ;  ME  half  [half],  MnE  [haf]. 

[h]  has  been  lost  before  consonants  and  after  vowels;  e.g.,  ME  night 
[niht],  MnE  [nait];  ME  saugh  [sauh],  MnE  [sq].^^ 

Middle  Enghsh  double  consonants  have  become  single  in  Modern 
Enghsh;  e.g.,  ME  sonne  [sunna],  MnE  [sAn];  ME  sitte(n)  [sittan],  MnE 
[sit]. 

[sj]  and  zj]  have  become  [f]  and  [z};  e.g.,  early  MnE  special  [sp^sjal], 
MnE  [sp§(l];  early  MnE  mission  [misjon],  MnE  [mifan];  early  MnE 
portion  [pgrsjon],  MnE  [pQrfan];^^  early  MnE  vision  [vizjon],  MnE  [vizan]. 

[tj]  and  [dj]  have  become  [tf]  and  [d^] ;  e.g.,  early  MnE  fortune  [fQrtjun], 
MnE  [fgrtfan];  early  MnE  cordial  [kgrdjael],  MnE  [kgrd^l]. 

r  in  Modern  Enghsh  has  lost  its  trilled  sound  and  has  become  a 
vowel-hke  sound  which  tends  to  disappear  before  consonants. 

"  In  some  words  Middle  English  [h]  has  become  [f]  in  Modern  English;  e.g.,  ME 
laughe(n)  [lauhan],  MnE  [laf];  ME  tough  [tuh],  MnE  [tAf];  in  these  words  the  vowel 
has  also  been  modified  in  a  special  way;  in  the  examples  just  given  ME  [au]  has  become 
[a]  instead  of  [q],  and  ME  [u]  has  been  shortened  to  [a]. 

"  The  suffix-  -tion  is  merely  a  Latinised  spelUng  of  the  suffix  which  was  spelled 
-cioun  or  -cion  in  Middle  English. 


PART  IV 

HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MIDDLE  ENGLISH 
INFLECTIONS 

47.  Declension  of  Nouns.  The  declension  of  nouns  in  Old  English 
was  rather  complex;  there  were  four  cases,  nominative,  genitive,  dative, 
and  accusative;  two  numbers,  singular  and  plural;  and  three  genders, 
masculine,  feminine,  and  neuter,  which,  like  those  of  modern  German, 
were  largely  independent  of  sex.  In  the  late  Middle  English  of  Chaucer, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  declension  of  nouns  is  extremely  simple.  The 
simpUfication  which  took  place  in  the  inflection  of  nouns  in  Middle 
English  was  the  result  of  two  causes,  sound  change  and  analogy. 

48.  Sound  Change  in  Unaccented  Syllables.  The  Middle  English 
sound  changes  that  were  undergone  by  vowels  in  accented  syllables 
have  been  explained  in  sections  42  and  43,  The  changes  undergone  by 
vowels  in  unaccented  syllables  were  very  much  simpler  in  character  and 
may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows: 

Old  English  a,  e,  o,  and  u  became  in  unaccented  syllables  the  vowel 
which  was  commonly  written  e  and  which  probably  was  pronounced 
[a];"  e.g. 

OE  belle  [beUe]  ME  beUe  [bgUa] 

OE  oxa  [Qksa]  ME  oxe  [qkss] 

OE  nacod  [nakgd]  ME  naked  [naksd] 

OE  sunu  [sunu]  ME  sune  [suna] 

This  change  in  the  pronunciation  of  vowels  of  unaccented  syllables  is 
the  most  important  difference  between  Old  English  and  Middle  Enghsh, 


"  This  unstressed  vowel  was  also  frequently  written  i,  particularly  in  the  North  of 
England;  it  is  probable  that  this  variation  of  spelling  represents  a  variation  of  pro- 
nunciation between  [a]  and  fil. 


50  NOUNS 

49.  Analogy.  Analogy  is  the  regularising,  simplifying  tendency  of 
the  human  mind  manifesting  itself  in  language.  The  child  who  says 
mans  for  men,  fools  iorfeet,  <ind  fighied  iox  fought  is  making  use  of  analogy. 
In  Modern  English  the  preterits  dreamed  and  lighted  have  been  substituted 
for  the  older  forms  dreamt  and  lit  because  of  the  analogy  of  the  great 
number  of  weak  verbs  which  have  the  same  vowel  in  the  preterit  as  in  the 
present.  So  in  the  Middle  English  noun  declensions,  many  forms  which 
were  merely  the  Old  English  forms  pronounced  in  a  new  way  were  dis- 
placed by  different  forms  that  were  suggested  by  analogy.  For  example, 
in  Old  English  and  early  Middle  English  the  dative  singular  and  the 
accusative  singular  were  identical  in  the  great  majority  of  nouns.  But 
in  some  nouns  the  dative  singular  ended  in  e  and  the  accusative  singular 
ended  in  a  consonant.  In  these  nouns,  therefore,  the  analogy  of  the 
other  nouns  caused  the  old  dative  singular  to  be  superseded  by  a  form 
which  was  identical  with  the  accusative.  The  Middle  English  forms 
that  were  developed  from  the  Old  English  forms  by  sound  change  alone 
are  called  historical  forms.  Forms  that  were  substituted  for  these  his- 
torical forms  by  the  process  of  analogy  are  called  analogical  forms. 

NOUNS 

50.  Development  of  the  Middle  English  Noun  Declensions.     The 

development  of  the  Middle  English  noun  declensions  is  shown  in  the 
tables  printed  below.  In  the  first  column  are  given  the  Old  English 
forms.  In  the  second  column  are  given  the  historical  Middle  English 
forms  that  developed  from  the  Old  English  forms  by  the  process  of  sound 
change  alone.  In  the  third  column  are  given  analogical  forms  that  dis- 
placed some  of  the  historical  forms.  In  the  fourth  column  are  given 
the  late  Middle  English  forms  which  we  find  (for  example)  in  Chaucer; 
in  this  column  the  historical  forms  are  printed  in  Roman  type  and  the 
analogical  forms  in  italics.  The  words  in  the  first  column  exemplify 
the  eleven  principal  types  of  noun  declension  in  Old  English:  the  strong 
masculine  nouns  dom  {judgment)  and  ende  {end) ;  the  u-declension  noun 
sunu  {son);  the  strong  feminine  nouns  lufu  {love)  and  hwil  {time);  the 
strong  neuter  nouns  lim  (/imft),  hors  {horse),  and  wite  {punishment);  the 
weak  masculine  noun  hunta  {hunter);  the  weak  feminine  noun  sunne 
{sun) ;  and  the  weak  neuter  noun  eare  {ear). 


NOUNS 


51 


OLD  ENGLISH 


MIDDLE  ENGLISH 


Historical 

Analogical 

Late 

forms 

forms 

ME 

51.     dom,  masculine: 

Sing.  Nom.             dom 

doom 

doom 

Gen.              domes 

doomes 

doomes 

Dat.               dome 

doome 

doom 

doom 

Ace.               d5m 

doom 

doom 

Plur.  Nom.,  Ace.    domas 

doomes 

doomes 

Gen.              doma 

doome 

doomes 

doomes 

Dat.               domum^^ 

doome(n)-'' 

doomes 

doomes 

52.     ende,  masculine: 


Sing.  Nom. 

ende 

ende 

ende 

Gen. 

endes 

endes 

endes 

Dat. 

ende 

ende 

ende 

Ace. 

ende 

ende 

ende 

Plur.  Nom.,  Ace. 

endas 

endes 

endes 

Gen. 

enda 

ende 

endes 

endes 

Dat. 

endum 

ende(n) 

endes 

endes 

53.     sunu,  masculine: 


Sing.  Nom. 

sunu 

sune 

sone^ 

Gen. 

suna 

sune 

sunes 

sones 

Dat. 

suna 

sune 

sone 

Ace. 

sunu 

sune 

sone 

Plur.  Nom., 

,  Ace. 

suna 

sune 

sunes 

sones 

Gen. 

suna 

sune 

sunes 

sones 

Dat. 

sunum 

sune(n) 

sunes 

sones 

5^  See  46,  1  above  for  change  of  OE  final  m  to  ME  final  n  in  unstressed  syllables. 

"  As  stated  above  in  section  46,  1  the  ending  -en  was  very  frequently  reduced  to 
-e  thru  the  loss  of  the  final  n;  in  these  tables,  therefore,  the  ending  is  printed  -e(n). 

5«  In  this  column  the  forms  are  given  in  their  late  Middle  English  spelling;  in  the 
two  former  columns  the  forms  are  given  in  their  early  Middle  English  spsUing. 


52 


NOUNS 


OLD  ENGLISH 

MIDDLE  ENG 

LISH 

Historical 

Analogical 

Late 

forms 

forms 

ME 

54.     lufu,  feminine: 

Sing.  Nom.             lufu 

luve 

love 

Gen.              lufe 

luve 

luves 

loves 

Dat.              lufe 

luve 

love 

Ace.              lufe 

luve 

love 

Plur.  Nom.,  Ace.    lufa 

luve 

luves 

loves 

Gen.              lufa 

luve 

luves 

loves 

Dat.              lufum 

luve(n) 

luves 

loves 

55.     hwil,  feminine: 

Sing.  Nom.            Jbwil  - 

hwil 

hwile , 

whiUA 

Gen.              hwile 

hwile 

kwiles 

whiles^ 

Dat.               hwile 

hwile 

while 

Ace.               hwile 

hwile 

while 

Plur.  Nom.,  Ace.    hwila 

hwile 

Irwiles 

whiles 

Gen.               hwila 

hwile 

kwiles 

whiles 

Dat.              hwilum 

hwile  (n) 

hwiles 

whiles 

56.    Km,  neuter: 

Sing.  Nom.             lim 

lim 

lim 

Gen.              limes 

limes 

limes 

Dat.              lime 

lime 

lim 

lim 

Ace.              lim 

lim 

lim 

Plur.  Nom.,  Ace.    limu 

lime 

limes 

limes 

Gen.              lima 

lime 

limes 

limes 

Dat.              limum 

lime(n) 

limes 

limes 

57.     hors,  neuter: 

Sing.  Nom.             hors 

hors 

hors 

Gen.              horses 

horses 

horses 

Dat.               horse 

horse 

hors 

hors 

Ace.               hors 

hors 

hors 

Plur.  Nom.,  Ace.    hors 

hors 

horses 

horses 

Gen.              horsa 

horse 

horses 

horses 

Dat.              horsum 

horse (n) 

horses 

horses 

NOUNS 


S3 


OLD  ENGLISH 


MIDDLE  ENGLISH 


Historical 

Analogical 

Late 

forms 

forms 

ME 

58.    wite,  neuter: 

Sing.  Nom.             wite 

wite 

wite 

Gen.              wites 

wites 

wites 

Dat.               wite 

wite 

wite 

Ace.               wite 

wite 

wite 

Plur.  Nom.,  Ace.    witu 

wite 

■wites 

wites 

Gen.               wita 

wite 

wites 

wites 

Dat.               witum 

wite(n) 

wites 

wites 

59.     hunta,  weak  masculine: 


Sing.  Nom. 

hunta 

hunte 

hunte 

Gen. 

huntan 

hunte(n) 

huntes 

huntes 

Dat. 

huntan 

hunte  (n) 

himtd'^ 

hunte 

Ace. 

huntan 

hunte  (n) 

hunte'^ 

hunte 

Plur.  Nom., 

Ace.    huntan 

hunte  (n) 

huntes 

huntes 

Gen. 

huntena 

huntene 

hmtes 

huntes 

Dat. 

huntum 

hunte  (n) 

huntes 

huntes 

60.     sunne,  weak  feminine: 

Sing.  Nom.  sunne 

Gen.  sunnan 

Dat.  sunnan 

Ace.  sunnan 

Plur.  Nom.,  Ace.  sunnan 

Gen.  sunnena 

Dat.  sunnum 


sunne 

Sonne 

sunne  (n) 

sunnes 

sonnes 

sunne  (n) 

sunne'^ 

Sonne 

sunne  (n) 

sunn^^ 

Sonne 

sunne  (n) 

sunnes 

sonnes 

sunnene 

sunnes 

sonnes 

sunne  (n) 

sunnes 

sonnes 

"  Inasmuch  as  the  early  Middle  EngUsh  ending  -en  was  always  liable  to  undergo 
reduction  to  -e  thru  loss  of  final  n  (see  note  57  above),  sound  change  was  no  doubt  an 
important  factor  in  the  establishment  of  this  form. 


54 


NOUNS 


OLD  ENGLISH 


MIDDLE  ENGLISH 


Historical 

Analogical 

Late 

forms 

forms 

ME 

61.     eare,  weak  neuter: 

Sing.  Nom. 

eare 

ere 

ere 

Gen. 

earan 

ere(n) 

eres 

eres 

Dat. 

earan 

ere(n) 

ere^^ 

ere 

Ace. 

eare 

ere 

ere 

Plur.  Nom.,  Ace. 

earan 

ere(n) 

eres 

eres 

Gen. 

earena 

erene 

eres 

eres 

Dat. 

earum 

ere(n) 

eres 

eres 

62.  An  analysis  of  the  tables  given  above  shows  that  the  analogical 
changes  that  took  place  in  the  inflection  of  nouns  were  these: 

1.  The  nominative  singular  became  identical  with  the  accusative 
singular  in  the  strong  feminine  nouns  ending  in  a  consonant,  which  in 
Old  English  had  different  forms  for  the  two  cases. 

2.  The  ending  -es  became  the  ending  of  the  genitive  singular  of  nouns 
which  in  Old  English  had  other  endings. 

3.  The  dative  singular  became  identical  with  the  accusative  singular 
in  those  nouns  which  had  different  forms  for  the  two  cases. 

4.  The  accusative  singular  became  identical  with  the  nominative 
singular  in  the  weak  masculine  and  feminine  nouns,  which  in  Old  English 
had  different  forms  for  the  two  cases. 

5.  The  ending  -es  became  the  ending  of  the  nominative-accusative 
plural  of  those  nouns  which  in  Old  English  had  other  endings. 

6.  The  genitive  and  dative  plural  became  identical  with  the  nomina- 
tive-accusative plural. 

63.  Retention  and  Extension  of  the  Weak  Noun  Inflection.     One 

other  statement  is  needed,  however,  to  complete  this  account  of  the 
Middle  English  noun  inflections.  A  few  nouns  that  belonged  to  the  Old 
EngHsh  weak  declension  retained  their  weak  inflection,  at  least  in  part, 
even  in  Late  Middle  English.     The  development  of  this  type  of  inflec- 


*°  Inasmuch  as  the  early  Middle  English  ending  -en  was  always  liable  to  undergo 
reduction  to  -e  thru  loss  of  final  n  (see  note  57  above),  sound  change  was  no  doubt  an 
important  factor  in  the  establishment  of  this  form. 


ADJECTIVES 


55 


tion,  as  exemplified  by  Old  English  oxa  (ox),  is  shown  in  the  following 
table: 

MIDDLE  ENGLISH 
Historical      Analogical        Late 


OLD  ENGLISH 


forms 

forms 

ME 

Sing.  Nom. 

oxa 

oxe 

oxe 

Gen. 

oxan 

oxe(n) 

oxes 

oxes- 

Dat. 

oxan 

oxe(n) 

cx^^ 

oxe 

Ace. 

oxan 

oxe(n) 

oxe^^ 

oxe 

Plur.  Nom., 

,  Ace. 

oxan 

oxe(n) 

oxen 

Gen. 

oxena 

oxene 

oxen 

oxen 

Dat. 

oxum 

oxe(n) 

oxen 

Sometimes  this  type  of  inflection  was  extended  to  nouns  that  were  not 
weak  nouns  in  Old  English;  as  the  plural  of  sune  we  sometimes  find,  for 
example,  sunen  instead  of  sune  or  sunes.  Likewise  the  weak  genitive 
plural  ending  -ene  was  sometimes  extended  to  nouns  that  were  not  weak 
in  Old  English;  e.g.,  kingene  king  king  of  kings. 

64.  Summary.  The  endings,  both  historical  and  analogical,  which 
appear  (in  various  combinations)  in  the  strong  noun  declensions  are  as 
follows: 


Historical 

Analogical 

Sing.  Nom. 

— ,  -e 

-e 

Gen. 

-es,  -e 

-es 

Dat. 

-e 

— 

Ace. 

— ,  -e 

Plur.  Nom.. 

,  Ace. 

-es,  -e,  — 

-es 

Gen. 

-e 

-es 

Dat. 

-e(n) 

-es 

ADJECTIVES 

65.  Declension  of  Adjectives.  In  Old  English,  as  in  Modern  Ger- 
man, every  adjective  was  inflected  according  to  either  one  of  two  declen- 
sions, the  strong  or  the  weak.  The  weak  declension  was  used  if  the 
adjective  was  preceded  by  a  definite  article,  a  demonstrative,  or  a  posses- 

'5  Inasmuch  as  the  early  Middle  English  ending  -en  was  always  liable  to  undergo 
reduction  to  -e  thru  loss  of  final  n  (see  note  57  above),  sound  change  was  no  doubt  an 
important  factor  in  the  establishment  of  this  form. 


56 


ADJECTIVES 


sive,  or  if  the  adjective  modified  a  noun  used  in  direct  address;  the  strong 
declension  was  used  except  under  conditions  that  required  the  use  of  the 
weak.  In  Middle  English  the  two  declensions  of  the  adjective  were 
retained,  but  with  much  simplification  of  forms.  As  in  the  declension 
of  nouns,  the  simplification  that  took  place  in  the  inflection  of  adjectives 
was  the  result  of  two  causes,  sound  change  and  analogy.  The  historical 
development  is  shown  in  the  tables  printed  below: 

66.     Strong  Declension. 


OLD  ENGLISH 

MIDDLE  ENGLISH 

Historical          Analogical 

Late 

forms 

forms 

ME 

(Early  ME) 

Masculine : 

Sing.  Nom. 

god 

good 

good 

Gen. 

godes 

goodes 

good 

good 

Dat. 

godum 

goode(n) 

good 

good 

Ace. 

godne 

goodne 

good 

good 

Plur.  Nom., 

Ace. 

gode 

goode 

goode 

Gen. 

g5dra 

goodre,  gooder 

goode 

goode 

Dat. 

godum 

goode (n) 

goode^^ 

goode 

Femine: 

Sing.  Nom. 

god 

good 

good 

Gen. 

godre 

goodre,  gooder 

good 

good 

Dat. 

godre 

goodre,  gooder 

good 

good 

Ace. 

gode 

goode 

good 

good 

Plur.  Nom., 

Ace. 

goda 

goode 

goode 

Gen. 

godra 

goodre,  gooder 

goode 

goode 

Dat. 

godum 

goode  (n) 

goode^^ 

goode 

Neuter: 

Sing.  Nom. 

god 

good 

good 

Gen. 

godes 

goodes 

good 

good 

Dat. 

godum 

goode (n) 

good 

good 

Ace. 

god 

good 

good 

Plur.  Nom., 

Ace. 

g5de 

goode 

goode 

Gen. 

godra 

goodre,  gooder  goode 

goode 

Dat. 

godum 

goode (n) 

goode^^ 

goode 

•"  Inasmuch  as  the  early  Middle  EngUsh  ending  -en  was  always  liable  to  undergo 
reduction  to  -e  thru  loss  of  final  n  (see  note  57  above),  sound  change  was  no  doubt  an 
important  factor  in  the  establishment  of  this  form.  ' 


PRONOUNS 


57 


67.     Weak  Declension. 


ol; 

D  ENGLISH 

MIDDLE  ENGLISH 

Historical 

Anological 

Late 

forms 

forms 

ME 

(Early  ME) 

Masculine: 

Sing.  Nom. 

goda 

goode 

goode 

Gen. 

godan 

goode(n) 

goode''^ 

goode 

Dat. 

godan 

goode (n) 

goode-^^ 

goode 

Ace. 

godan 

goode (n) 

goode'^ 

goode 

Plur.  Nom., 

Ace.    g5dan 

goode (n) 

goode^^ 

goode 

Gen. 

godena 

goodene 

goode 

goode 

Dat. 

godum 

goode (n) 

goode^'^ 

goode 

Feminine: 

Sing.  Nom. 

gode 

goode 

goode 

Gen. 

godan 

goode  (n) 

goode^^ 

goode 

Dat. 

godan 

goode  (n) 

goode^° 

goode 

Ace. 

godan 

goode  (n) 

goode^^ 

goode 

Plur.  Nom., 

Ace.    godan 

goode (n) 

goode^^ 

goode 

Gen. 

godena 

goodene 

goode 

goode 

Dat. 

godum 

goode (n) 

goode^^ 

goode 

Neuter: 

Sing.  Nom. 

gode 

goode 

goode 

Gen. 

godan 

goode(n) 

good^^ 

goode 

Dat. 

g5dan 

goode (n) 

good^° 

goode 

Ace. 

gode 

goode 

goode 

Plur.  Nom., 

Ace.    godan 

goode (n) 

goode''" 

goode 

Gen. 

godena 

goodene 

goode 

goode 

Dat. 

godum 

goode  (n) 

goode^" 

goode 

PRONOUNS 
68.  Declension  of  Pronouns.  The  development  of  the  Middle 
English  pronouns  is  more  complex  than  that  of  the  noun  and  adjective 
inflections.  One  reason  is  that  the  Old  English  pronouns  had  a  good 
many  variant  forms,  any  one  of  which  might  become  the  basis  of  a  cor- 
responding ^liddle  English  form.     Another  reason  is  that  pronouns  are 

^•^  Inasmuch  as  the  early  Middle  EiigUsh  ending  -en  was  always  liable  to  reduction 
to  -e  thru  loss  of  final  n  (see  note  57  above),  sound  change  was  no  doubt  an  important 
factor  in  the  establishment  of  this  form. 


58 


PRONOUNS 


often  weakly  stressed,  and  the  sound  changes  that  take  place  in  weakly 
stressed  syllables  are  not  always  the  same  as  those  that  take  place  in 
strongly  stressed  syllables.  In  the  following  tables,  as  in  those  given 
above,  the  historical  forms  that  developed  by  sound  change  are  printed 
in  Roman  type,  analogical  forms  in  italics." 

>     69.     First  Personal  Pronoun. 


OLD  ENGLISH 

MI 

DDLE  EN< 

GLISH 

Sing.  Nom. 

ic 

ich 

m, 

I[i] 

Gen. 

min 

mi(n) 

Dat. 

me 

me 

Ace. 

me 

me 

Plur.  Nom. 

we 

we 

Gen. 

ure 

ure 

Dat.,  Ace. 

us 

us 

[us],  [us] 

70.    Second  Personal  Pronoun. 

Sing.  Nom. 

tfi 

I>u 

Gen. 

\nn 

bi(n) 

Dat. 

n 

he 

Ace. 

he 

he 

Plur.  Nom. 

ge 

5e 

m 

Gen. 

eower 

eower 

[eouar],  ower  [guar],  jur  [jur] 

Dat.,  Ace. 

eow 

eow 

[eou],     ow 

[qu],  5u  [ju] 

71.     Third  Personal  Pronoun. 

OLD  ENGLISH 

MIDDLE  ENGLISH 

Analogical 

forms 

Masculine  SinguL 

ar: 

Nom.    he 

he 

Gen.     his 

his 

Dat.     him 

him 

Ace.      hine 

hine 

him. 

Feminine  Singula 

x: 

Nom.    heo,  hi 

heo,  he  [he],  ho  [ho],  hi  [hi] 

Gen.     hire 

hire 

here 

Dat.     hire 

hire 

here 

Ace.      hi,  heo 

hi  [hi];  heo,  he  [he],  ho  [ho] 

hire,  here 

•'  These  tables  do  not  attempt  to  give  all  the  Middle  English  pronominal  forms, 
but  only  the  commoner  and  more  characteristic  ones.  No  account  is  taken  of  mere 
variations  of  spelling. 


PRONOUNS 

5 

Neuter  Singular: 

Nom.    hit 

hit 

Gen.     his 

his 

Dat.     him 

him 

hit 

Ace.      hit 

hit 

Plural  (all  genders)  : 

Nom.    hi,  heo 

hi  [hi];  heo,  he  [he],  ho  [ho] 

Gen.     hira,  heora 

hire,  here 

Dat.     him,  heom 

him,  hem 

Ace.      hi,  heo 

hi  [hi];  heo,  he,  [he],  ho  [ho] 

him,  hem 

72.     Demonstrative  Pronoun  and  Definite  Article. 

OLD  ENGLISH 

MIDDLE  ENGLISH 

Analogical 
forms 

Masculine  Singular: 

Nom.    se 

se 

pe,  pat 

Gen.     I^aes 

bes,  bas 

pe,  pat 

Dat.     J>jem,  J)am 

ben,  ban 

pe,  pat 

Ace.      bone,  jjaene 

bone,  bene,  \>saie 

pe,  pat 

Inst.     J)y,  Jjon,  jje 

bi,  bon,  be 

Feminine  Singular: 

Nom.    seo 

seo,  se 

pe,  pat 

Gen.     bare 

bere,  bare 

pe,  pat 

Dat.     \>xTe 

bere,  bare 

pe,  pat 

Ace.      \)a 

bo  [\>q],  ba  [ba] 

Pe,  pat 

Neuter  Singular: 

Nom.    \>set 

bet,  bat 

Pe 

Gen.     \>ses 

bes,  bas 

pe,  pat 

Dat.     \>sbm,  \)am 

ben,  ban 

pe,  pat 

Ace.      \>set 

bet,  bat 

pe 

Inst.     \>y,  |jon,  be 

bi,  bon,  be 

Plural  (all  genders) : 

Nom.    ba 

bo  [bg],  ba  [ba] 

Pe 

Gen.     ^aia,  \>xTa 

bare,  bere 

pe,po 

Dat.     \>sbm,  \fam 

ben,  ban 

pe,po 

Ace.      \>a 

bo,  ba 

Pe 

59 


60  VERBS 


VERBS 


73.  Weak  Verbs.  In  Middle  English,  as  in  Old  English  and  all 
other  Germanic  languages,  there  are  two  conjugations  of  verbs,  the 
strong  and  the  weak.  Weak  verbs  form  their  preterit  by  means  of  a 
sufhx  containing  d  or  t  followed  by  endings  indicative  of  person  and 
number.  From  the  point  of  view  of  their  development  in  Middle  English, 
we  may  say  that  there  were  two  types  of  weak  verbs  in  Old  English, 
Verbs  of  the  first  type  had  preterits  ending  in  -ede  or  -ode  and  past 
participles  ending  in  -ed  or  -od;  for  example, 


fremman  (make) 

fremede 

fremed 

erian  (plow) 

erede 

ered 

lufian  (love) 

lufode 

lufod 

In  Middle  EngUsh  the  distinction  between  lufian,  with  preterit  in  -ode, 
and  fremman  and  erian,  with  preterits  in  -ede,  was  done  away  with  by 
the  process  of  sound  change,  so  that  the  earliest  Middle  English  forms 
of  these  verbs  were 


fremme(n) 

fremede 

fremed 

erie(n) 

erede 

ered 

luvie(n) 

luvede 

luved 

These  verbs,  which  we  shall  call  weak  verbs  of  Type  I,  therefore  had  in 
Middle  English  preterits  ending  in  -ede  and  past  participles  ending  in 
-ed.  In  early  Middle  English  the  infinitive  of  these  verbs  ended  in 
-e(n)  or  -ie(n),  but  in  late  Middle  English,  by  the  process  of  analogy, 
the  ending  -ie(n)  was  displaced  by  the  commoner  ending  -e(n). 

Old  English  verbs  of  the  second  type  had  preterits  ending  in  -de  or 
-te  and  past  participles  ending  in  -ed,  -d,  or  -t;  for  example: 

deman  (judge)  demde  demed 

felan  (feel)  felde  feled 

fedan  (feed)  fedde  feded,  fedd 

wendan  (turn)  wende  wended,  wend 

cepan  (keep)  cepte  ceped 

metan  (meet)  mette  meted,  mett 

settan  (set)  sette  seted,  sett 

secan  (seek)  sohte  soht 

l^encan  (think)  \>ohte  J^oht 


VERBS 


61 


In  Middle  English  these  verbs  developed,  according  to  the  regular  laws 
of  sound  change,  as  follows: 


deme(n)     [deman] 

demde     [demda] 

demed     [demad] 

£ele(n)     [febn] 

felte     [fglta] 

feled     [felad] 

fede(n)     [fedan] 

fedde     [fgdda] 

fed     [f?d] 

wende(n)     [wgndan] 

wente     [wgnta] 

went     [wgnt] 

kepe(n)     [kepan] 

kepte     [k?pta] 

keped     [kepad] 

mete(n)     [metan] 

mette     [mgtta] 

met     [mgt] 

sette(n)     [sgttan] 

sette     [sgtta] 

set    [s^t] 

seche(n)     [setfan] 

soughte     [sQuhta] 

sought     [sQuht] 

}7enche(n)     [[;gntfan] 

})oughte     [|)Quhta] 

fought     [bQuht] 

These  verbs,  which  we  shall  call  weak  verbs  of  Type  II,  therefore  had  in 
Middle  EngUsh  preterits  ending  in  -de  or  -te  and  past  participles  ending 
in  -ed,  d,  or  t.  It  will  be  observed  that  (in  accordance  with  the  sound 
law  stated  above  in  section  43,  la)  the  long  vowels  of  felen,  feden,  kepen, 
and  meten  are  shortened  in  the  preterit,  where  they  were  followed  by  a 
double  consonant  or  a  combination  of  consonants. 


74.  Strong  Verbs.  Strong  verbs  form  their  preterit,  not  by  the 
addition  of  a  sufiSix,  but  by  means  of  a  change  in  the  vowel  of  the  stem  of 
the  verb.  This  change  is  called  "ablaut, "  and  the  strong  verbs  are  fre- 
quently-called "ablaut  verbs."  The  preterit  plural  of  these  verbs 
usually  has  a  different  vowel  from  the  preterit  singular;  the  principal 
parts  therefore  are  the  infinitive,  the  preterit  indicative  first  person  singu- 
lar, the  preterit  indicative  plural,  and  the  past  participle. 

In  Old  English  there  were  seven  classes  of  strong  verbs;  the  principal 
parts  of  verbs  representative  of  these  seven  classes  are  as  follows: 


I. 

ridan  {ride) 

rad 

ridon 

riden 

II. 

creopan  (creep) 

creap 

crupon 

cropen 

III. 

bindan  (bind) 

band,  bond 

bundon 

bunden 

helpan  (help) 

healp 

hulpon 

holpen 

sterfan  {die) 

stearf 

sturfon 

storfen 

IV. 

beran  (bear) 

bier 

b^ron 

boren 

V. 

specan  (speak) 

spaec 

sp«con 

specen 

VI. 

scacan  (shake) 

scoc 

scocon 

scacen 

VII. 

sl^pan  (sleep) 

slep 

slepon 

slapen 

healdan  (hold) 

heold 

heoldon 

healden 

62 


VERBS 


By  the  operation  of  the  sound  changes  which  have  been  explained  in  sec- 
tions 42  and  43,  these  Old  English  forms  developed  into  the  following 
Middle  English  forms  r"^ 


I.  ride(n)  [ridan] 
11.  crepe(n)  [krepan] 

III.  binde(n)  [bindan] 

helpe(n)  [hglpan] 
sterve(n)  [stgrvan] 

IV.  bere(n)  [bgran] 
V.  speke(n)  [sp^kan] 

VI.  shake(n)  [fakan] 

VII.  slepe(n)  [slepan] 

holde(n)  [hgldan] 


rod  [rQd] 
creep  [kr|p] 
band  [band] 
bond  [bgnd] 
halp  [halp] 
starf  [starf] 
bar  [bar] 
spak  [spak] 
shook  [fok] 
sleep  [slep] 
heeld  [held] 


ride(n)  [ridan] 
crupe(n)  [krupan] 
bunde(n)  [bundan] 

hulpe(n)  [hulpan] 
sturve(n)  [sturvan] 
bere(n)  [beran] 
speke(n)  [spekan] 
shooke(n)  [fokan] 
sleepe(n)  [slepan] 
heelde(n)  [heldan] 


ride(n)  [ridan] 
crope(n)    [krgpan] 
bunde(n)  [bundan] 

holpe(n)    [hglpan] 
storve(n)  [stgrvan] 
bore(n)  [bgran] 
speke(n)  [spekan] 
shake  (n)  [fakan] 
slepe(n)  [slepan] 
holde(n)    [hQldan] 


75.  Analogical  Forms.  The  forms  that  developed  from  the  Old 
English  forms  by  sound  change  are  those  that  occur  in  early  Middle 
English,  but  in  later  Middle  English  we  meet  with  a  good  many  ana- 
logical forms.     The  most  important  results  of  analogy  were  these: 

1.  Strong  verbs  often  acquired  weak  preterits;  e.g.,  crepte  [krgpta], 
slepte  [slgpta],  in  place  of  creep,  sleep. 

2.  The  vowel  of  the  preterit  plural  was  often  substituted  for  the 
vowel  of  the  preterit  singular;  e.g.,  beer  [ber],  with  the  vowel  of  the 
preterit  plural,  displaced  bar. 

3.  The  vowel  of  the  preterit  singular  was  often  substituted  for  the 
vowel  of  the  preterit  plural;  e.g.,  bare(n)  [baran],  with  the  vowel  of  the 
preterit  singular  (lengthened  when  it  came  to  stand  in  an  open  syllable)  ,^^ 
displaced  bere(n)  [beran]. 

4.  The  vowel  of  the  past  participle  was  often  substituted  for  the 
vowel  of  the  preterit  plural;  e.g.,  crope(n)  [krgpan],  with  the  vowel  of 
the  past  participle,  displaced  crupe(n). 

•*The  Middle  English  forms  here  given  are  those  of  the  Midland  dialect;  the  Old 
English  forms  given  above  are  those  of  the  West-Saxon  dialect  (see  note  37  above) 
The  Mercian  dialect  of  Old  English,  which  was  that  from  which  the  Midland  dialect 
of  Middle  English  was  derived,  had  some  forms  which  differed  from  those  of  the 
West-Saxon  dialect.  In  place  of  b^ron,  sp^con,  and  slepan  it  had  beron,  specon 
and  slepan,  and  in  place  of  healdan  and  healden  it  had  haldan  and  balden. 

"  See  section  43,  lb,  above. 


VERBS 


63 


5.  In  the  past  participles  of  verbs  of  Class  V  the  vowel  o  [q]  was  sub- 
stituted for  the  original  vowel  e,  from  the  analogy  of  the  past  participle 
of  verbs  of  Class  IV;  e.g.,  spoke(n)  [spQkan],  with  the  vowel  of  bore(n) 
[bgran],  displaced  speke(n)  [spgkan]. 

76.  Endings  of  Weak  Verbs.  The  historical  development  of  the 
Middle  English  forms  of  the  weak  verb  is  shown  in  the  tables  printed 
below.  Weak  verbs  of  Type  I  are  exemplified  by  Old  English  erian 
{plow)  and  iufian  (love) ;  weak  verbs  of  Type  II  are  exemplified  by  Old 
English  deman  {judge). 


OLD  ENGLISH 

MIDDLE  ENGLISH 

Historical 

Analogical 

forms 

forms 

Pres.  Ind.  Sing.  1  erie 

erie 

ere 

2  crest 

erest 

3  ere)? 

ere}? 

Plur.     eriab 

erie]) 

erep,  ere{n)^^ 

Pret.  Ind.  Sing.  1  erede 

erede 

2  eredest 

eredest 

3  erede 

erede 

Plur.     eredon 

erede (n) 

Pres.  Subj.  Sing,     erie 

erie 

ere 

Plur.     erien 

erie(n) 

ere{n) 

Pret.  Subj.  Sing,     erede 

erede 

Plur.     ereden 

erede (n) 

Pres.  Imp.  Sing.  2  ere 

ere 

Plur.  2  eriaj) 

eriel> 

erep 

Infinitive                 erian 

erie(n) 

ere{n) 

Gerund                   to  erienne 

to  eriene 

to  erene,  to  ere{n) 

Pres.  Participle      eriende 

eriende,  eriinde^^     erende,   erinde,^^ 

Past  Participle        ered 


ermge 
ered 


"  The  ending  -e(n)  in  the  present  indicative  plural  is  a  characteristic  of  the  Mid- 
land dialect;  the  ending  -e\>  is  a  characteristic  of  the  Southern  dialect. 

"  The  ending  -inde  is  a  characteristic  of  the  Southern  dialect,  the  ending  -ende 
of  the  Midland  dialect. 


64 


VERBS 


OLD  ENGLISH 

MIDDLE  ENGLISH 

Historical 

Analogical 

forms 

forms 

Pres.  Ind.  Sing.  1  lufie 

luvie,  luvi 

luve 

2  lufast 

luvest 

3  lufab 

luve|> 

Plur.      lufiab 

luviel? 

luvep,  luve(ny* 

Pret.  Ind.  Sing.  1  lufode 

luvede 

2  lufodest 

luvedest 

3  lufode 

luvede 

Plur.       lufodon 

luvede (n) 

Pres.  Subj.  Sing,     lufie 

luvie,  luvi 

luve 

Plur.       lufien 

luvie  (n),  luvi(n) 

luve(n) 

Pret.  Subj.  Sing,     lufode 

luvede 

Plur.      lufoden 

luvede  (n) 

Pres.  Imp.  Sing.  2  lufa 

luve 

Plur.  2  lufiab 

luviej) 

luvep 

Infinitive                 lufian 

luvie (n),  luvi(n) 

luve(n) 

Gerund                   to  lufienne 

to  luviene 

to  luvene, 
to  luve{n) 

Pres.  Participle       lufiende 

luviende,  luviinde^  luvende,  luvinde} 

luvinge 

Past  Participle        lufod 

luved 

Pres.  Ind.  Sing.  1  deme 

deme 

2  deme  St,  demst 

demest,  demst 

3  demeb,  dem|j 

demel>,  deml> 

Plur.      demal> 

demeb 

demeinY'^ 

Pret.  Ind.  Sing.  1  demde 

demde 

2  demdest 

demdest 

3  demde 

demde 

Plur.       demdon 

demde  (n) 

Pres.  Subj.  Sing,     deme 

deme 

Plur.      demen 

deme(n) 

"  The  ending  -e(n)  in  the  present  indicative  plural  is  a  characteristic  of  the  Mid- 
land dialect;  the  ending  -e\>  is  a  characteristic  of  the  Southern  dialect. 

*^The  ending  -inde  is  a  characteristic  of  the  Southern  dialect,  the  ending  -ende 
of  the  Midland  dialect. 


VERBS 


65 


OLD  ENGLISH 


MIDDLE  ENGLISH 


Historical 

Analogical 

forms 

forms 

Pret.  Subj.  Sing 

demde 

demde 

Plur. 

demden 

demde  (n) 

Pres.  Imp.  Sing. 

2  dem 

dem 

deme 

Plur. 

2  demaj) 

demeb 

Infinitive 

deman 

deme(n) 

Gerund 

to  demenne 

to  demene 

to  deme(n) 

Pres.  Participle 

demende 

demende, 

deminde*'^ 

demin^e 

Past  Participle 

demed 

demed 

77.  Endings  of  Strong  Verbs.  The  historical  development  of  the 
Middle  Enghsh  forms  of  the  strong  verb,  exemplified  by  Old  English 
ridan  {ride)  and  bindan  {bind),  is  shown  in  the  tables  printed  below.    ■ 


OLD  ENGLISH 

MIDDLE  ENGLISH 

Historical 

Analogical 

forms 

forms 

Pres.  Ind.  Sing.  1  ride 

ride 

2  ridest, 

ritst 

ridest,  ritst 

3  ridel?, 

ritt 

ridej>,  rit 

Plur.      ridaj? 

ridejj 

ride{ny^ 

Pret.  Ind.  Sing.  1  rad 

rood 

2  ride" 

ride 

rood 

3  rad 

rood 

Plur.      ridon 

ride(n) 

Pres.  Subj.  Sing,     ride 

ride 

Plur.      riden 

ride(n) 

Pret.  Subj.  Sing,     ride 

ride 

Plur.      riden 

ride(n) 

Pres.  Imp.  Sing.  2  rid 

rid 

Plur.  2  ridah 

rideb 

^  The  ending  -inde  is  a  characteristic  of  the  Southern  dialect,  the  ending  -ende 
of  the  Midland  dialect. 

^  The  ending  -e(n)  in  the  present  indicative  plural  is  a  characteristic  of  the  Mid- 
land dialect;  the  ending  -e\>  is  a  characteristic  of  the  Southern  dialect. 

*'  It  should  be  observed  that  the  preterit  indicative  2  singular  of  the  strong  verbs 
has  the  vowel  of  the  preterit  plural. 


66 


VERBS 


OLD  ENGLISH 


MIDDLE  ENGLISH 
Historical  Analogical 


forms 


forms 


Infinitive 

ridan 

ride(n) 

Gerund 

to  ridenne 

to  ridene 

to  ride{n) 

Pres.  Participle 

ridende 

ridende,  ridinde®^ 

ridinge 

Past  Participle 

riden 

ride(n) 

Pres.  Ind.  Sing. 

1  binde 

binde 

2  bindest,  bintst 

bindest,  bintst 

3  binde}),  bint 

bindeb,  bint 

Plur. 

binda]? 

bindej) 

hinde{n)^ 

Pret.  Ind.  Sing. 

1  band,  bond 

band,  bond 

2  bunde«' 

bunde 

hand,  bond 

3  band,  bond 

band,  bond 

Plur. 

bundon 

bunde  (n) 

Pres.  Subj.  Sing 

binde 

binde 

Plur. 

binden 

binde  (n) 

Pret.  Subj.  Sing, 

bunde 

bunde 

Plur. 

bunden 

bunde  (n) 

Pres.  Imp.  Sing. 

2  bind 

bind 

Plur. 

2  bindaj) 

binde  1> 

Infinitive 

bindan 

binde  (n) 

Genmd 

to  bindenne 

to  bindene 

to  binde(n) 

Pres.  Participle 

bindende 

bindende, 
bindinde^^ 

hindinge 

Past  Participle 

bunden 

bunde  (n) 

78.  Preteritive-Present  Verbs.  The  preteritive-present  (or  strong- 
weak)  verbs  have  present  indicatives  which  are  like  the  preterit  indica- 
tives of  strong  verbs  in  that  they  have  no  ending  in  the  first  and  third 
persons  singular  and  have  the  ending  -e(n)  (from  Old  English  -on)  in 


"The  ending  -inde  is  a  characteristic  of  the  Southern  dialect,  the  ending  -ende 
of  the  Midland  dialect. 

•*  The  ending  -e(n)  in  the  present  indicative  plural  is  a  characteristic  of  the  Mid- 
land dialect,  the  -ej»  ending  is  that  of  the  Southern  dialect. 

"  It  should  be  observed  that  the  preterit  indicative  2  singular  of  the  strong  verbs 
has  the  vowel  of  the  preterit  plural. 


VERBS 


67 


the  plural.    The  preterits  of  these  verbs  are  weak.    The  indicative 
forms  of  Middle  English  shal,  for  example,  are  as  follows: 


Pres.  Ind.  Sing. 

1  shal 

2  shah 

3  shal 

Plur. 

shule(n) 

Pret.  Ind.  Sing. 

1  sholde 

2  sholdest 

3  sholde 

Plur. 

sholde  (n' 

The  most  important  of  the  preteritive-present  verbs  are: 

owen,  own,  be  under  obligation 

cunnen,  know,  be  able 

muwen,  be  able 

moten,  be  permitted,  be  under  obligation 

shulen,  be  under  obligation,  be  about  to 

when,  know 

79.    The  historical  development  of  the  preteritive-present  verbs  is 


shown  in  the  following  tables: 

OLD  ENGLISH 

MIDDLE  ENGLISH 

Historical 

Analogical 

forms 

forms 

Pres.  Ind.  Sing.  1  ah,  ag 

ouh  [Quh],  ow  [qu] 

owe  [qu9] 

2  ahst 

ouhst  [Quhst] 

owest  [Quast] 

3  ah,  ag 

ouh  [Quh],  ow  [qu] 

owep  [qu3})] 

Plur.      agon 

owe(n)  [Quan] 

owep  [Qual>]^* 

Pret.  Ind.  Sing.  1  ahte 

ouhte  [Quhta] 

Infinitive                 agan 

owe(n)  [gudn] 

Pres.  Ind.  Sing.  1  cann,  conn 

can,  con 

2  canst,  const 

canst,  const 

3  cann,  conn 

can,  con 

Plur.      cunnon 

cunne(n) 

'*  This  form  occurs  only  in  the  Southern  dialect. 


68 


VERBS 


OLD  ENGLISH 


MIDDLE  ENGLISH 


Historical 

Analogical 

forms 

forms 

Pret.  Ind.  Sing.  1  cu|)e 

cul^e  [kutJa] 

cude  [ku( 

Infinitive                cunnan 

cunne(n) 

Pres.  Ind.  Sing.  1  maeg  mai,  mei 

2  meaht,  miht        maht,  maiht,  meiht,  maist 

mauht,  mouht,  miht 

3  maeg  mai,  mei 

Plur.      magon,  mugon*^^  mawe(n),  muwe(n) 
Pret.  Ind.  Sing.  1  meahte,  mihte     mahte,  maihte,  muhle 

meihte,  mauhte, 
mouhte,  mihte 
Infinitive  magan,  mugan'"  mawe(n),  muwe(n) 


Pres.  Ind. 

Sing. 

1  mot 

mot 

2  most 

most 

3  mot 

mot 

Plur. 

moton 

mote(n) 

Pret.  Ind. 

Sing. 

1  moste 

moste 

Infinitive 

motan 

mote(n) 

Pres.  Ind. 

Sing. 

1  sceal 

shal,  shel 

2  scealt 

shalt,  shelt 

3  sceal 

shal,  shel 

Plur. 

sculon 

shule(n) 

Pret.  Ind. 

Sing. 

1  scolde 

sholde 

Infinitive 

sculan 

shule(n) 

Pres.  Ind. 

Sing. 

1  wat 

wot 

2  wast 

wost 

3  wat 

wot 

Plur. 

witon 

wite(n) 

Pret.  Ind. 

Sing. 

1  wiste 

wiste,  wuste 

Infinitive 

witan 

wite(n) 

shulde 


•'  The  form  mugon  is  not  recorded  in  Old  English,  but  is  inferred  from  the  Middle 
English  forms. 

'"  The  form  mugan  is  not  recorded  in  Old  English,  but  is  inferred  from  the  Middle 
English  forms. 


VERBS 


69 


80.     Anomalous  Verbs.    The  historical  development  of  the  Middle 
English  verb  bee(n),  be,  was  as  follows: 


OLD  ENGLISH 


Pres.  Ind.  Sing.  1  eora,  beo 
eam^^ 

2  eart  bist 

3  is  h\\> 


MIDDLE  ENGLISH 

Historical  Analogical 


forms 


em, 
am 
art 
is 


Plur.      sindon,     beol?    sinde(n), 


be 

bist 

bib 

bee|> 


forms 


beest 
beep 
bee(ny* 


earon'-^ 
Pret.  Ind.  Sing.  1  waes 

2  wiere 

3  was 
Plur.      wjeron 

Pres.  Subj.  Sing,     sie 
Plur.      sien 

Pret.  Subj.  Sing,     ware 
Plur.      wjeren 

Pres.  Imp.  Sing.  2 
Plur.  2 

Infinitive 


beo 


are(n)'^^ 
wes,  was 
were 
wes,  was 
were(n) 
si 

beon  si(n) 
were 
were(n) 

beo 

beob 

beon 


be 

bee(n) 


be 

beeb 

bee(n) 


The  historical  development  of  the  Middle  English  verbs  don,  dj, 
and  willen,  will,  in  the  indicative  was  as  follows: 


OLD  ENGLISH 


Pres.  Ind.  Sing.  1  do 

2  des 

3  dej> 
Plur.       dob 


MIDDLE  ENGLISH 

Historical  Analogical 

forms  forms 
do 

dest  (iost 

deb  dop 

dob  Mny^ 


''  earn  is  the  Mercian  form,  eom  the  West-Saxon. 

'=  earon  is  the  ^lercian  form,  sindon  was  used  in  all  the  Old  EngUsh  dialects. 

'^  are(n)  was  not  used  in  the  Southern  dialect,  but  only  in  the  Midland  and  North. 

'« bee(n)  is  a  Midland  form;  it  was  not  used  in  the  South. 

"  do(n)  is  the  Midland  form;  it  was  not  used  in  the  South. 


70 


VERBS 


OLD  ENGLISH 

MIDDLE  ENGLISH 

Historical 

Analogical 

forms 

forms 

Pret.  Ind,  Sing.  1  dyde 

dide,  dude  [dyda] 

2  dydest 

didest,  dudest 

3  dyde 

dide,  dude 

Plur.      dydon 

dide(n),  dude(n) 

Past  Participle       don 

don 

Pres.  Ind.  Sing.  1  wille 

wille,  wulle 

wile,  wide 

2  wilt 

wilt,  wult 

3  wile 

wile,  wule 

wille,  wulle 

Plur.       willal> 

wille}?,  wullej) 

wille{n), 
wulle{ny^ 

Pret.  Ind.  Sing.  1  wolde 

wolde 

wulde 

2  woldest 

woldest 

wuldest 

3  wolde 

wolde 

wulde 

Plur.      woldon 

wolde  (n) 

wuldein) 

'•  wille(n)  and  wulle(n)  are  Midland  forms. 


PART  V 

MIDDLE  ENGLISH  DIALECTS 

81.  Distribution  of  the  Middle  English  Dialects.  There  were  four 
chief  dialects  of  Middle  Enghsh,  the  Southern,  the  Kentish,  the  Midland, 
and  the  Northern.  The  Southern  dialect  was  spoken  south  of  the 
Thames,  except  in  Kent.  The  Midland  dialect  was  spoken  in  the  dis- 
trict which  lay  (roughly)  between  the  Thames  on  the  south  and  the 
mouth  of  the  Humber  on  the  north.  The  Northern  dialect  was  spoken 
in  the  district  which  lay  (roughly)  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Humber; 
this  district  included  Yorkshire  and  its  adjacent  counties  and  the  low- 
lands of  Scotland.  The  territory  of  the  Midland  dialect  is  further 
divided  into  the  North  and  the  South  Midland  and  the  East  and  the  West 
Midland. 

82.  The  Southern  Dialect.  The  most  important  characteristics  of 
the  Southern  dialect  are  the  following: 

I.  Vowel  Sounds.  The  development  of  the  Old  English  vowels  and 
diphthongs  in  the  Midland  dialect  of  Middle  English  has  been  given 
above  in  42.  The  development  of  the  Old  English  vowel  sounds  in  the 
Southern  dialect  was  the  same  as  in  the  Midland  dialect  except  that 
Old  Enghsh  y  and  y,  which  had  the  sound  of  [y]  and  [y],  preserved  their 
original  quality  in  the  Southern  dialect,  tho  the  sounds  were  spelled  in 
Middle  Enghsh  with  u  or  ui  instead  of  y;  e.g.,  OE  fyr.  Southern  ME  vur, 
vuir;  OE  fyllan.  Southern  ME  vuUen." 

"  In  many  words  the  Southern  dialect  has  [«]  where  the  Midland  and  Northern 
dialects  have  [e].  This  dialect  difference  originated  in  Old  Enghsh,  for  West-Saxon 
X  appears  in  the  Anglian  dialect  as  e  unless  the  x.  is  the  result  of  unilaut.  In  Southern 
Middle  English  we  therefore  have  [d?d]  from  West-Saxon  dfed,  but  in  the  Midland 
and  Northern  dialects  we  have  [ded]  from  Anglian  ded.  In  all  three  dialects,  however, 
we  have  Middle  Enghsh  [h|l>]  from  West-Saxon  and  Anglian  h£e|>.  See  note  37  above. 
The  Anglian  dialect  of  Old  English  included  the  Mercian  dialect,  from  which  the  Mid- 
land dialect  of  Middle  English  was  derived,  and  the  Northumbrian  dialect,  from  which 
the  Northern  dialect  of  Middle  English  was  derived. 


72  SOUTHERN  DIALECT 

II.  Consonant  Sounds.  The  Old  English  initial  voiceless  spirants 
[f],  [s],  and  [\)]  changed  to  the  corresponding  voiced  spirants  [v],  [z],  and 
[tJ];  e.g.,  OE  for,  Southern  ME  vor;  OE  song,  Southern  ME  zong;  OE 
\>set  [\>xt],  Southern  ME  bat  [Sat]J^ 

III.  Final  e.  Final  e  was  retained  in  pronunciation  thruout  the 
fourteenth  century. 

IV.  Inflections. 

1.  Nouns. 

(a)  The  historical  forms  of  the  noun  declensions  (see  49  ff. 
above)  were  displaced  only  slowly  by  analogical  forms.  Geni- 
tive and  dative  singulars  in  e,  nominative,  genitive,  and 
accusative  plurals  in  e,  and  dative  plurals  in  e(n)  are  common 
in  texts  of  the  thirteenth  century  and  occur  occasionally  in 
texts  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

(b)  The  distinctions  of  grammatical  gender  were  maintained 
with  a  considerable  degree  of  correctness  thruout  the  first  half 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  relics  of  grammatical  gender 
are  found  even  in  texts  of  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth 
century. 

2.  Adjectives. 

The  historical  forms  of  the  genitive,  dative,  and  accus- 
ative in  the  strong  adjective  declension  (see  65  ff.  above) 
were  displaced  only  slowly  by  analogical  forms;  the  historical 
forms  occur  frequently  in  texts  of  the  first  half  of  the  thir- 
teenth century. 

3.  Pronouns. 

(a)  The  historical  forms  of  the  genitive,  dative,  and  accusa- 
tive of  the  definite  article  and  demonstrative  \)e  (se),  \)af^ 
(see  72  above)    were    displaced    only  slowly  by  analogical 

'*  The  initial  [v]  is  indicated  prett}'  consistenth'  ia  the  spelling  of  Southern  Middle 
English  texts;  the  initial  [z]  is  indicated  by  the  spelling  of  one  text  only,  for  the  letter  z 
was  Uttle  used  by  the  Middle  English  scribes.  The  initial  [tJ]  is  not  indicated  by 
spelling  at  all,  for  the  scribes  had  no  way  of  distinguishing  the  sounds  of  [S]  and  [|j] 
in  writing. 

"  In  the  Southern  dialect  !>at  is  used  as  the  definite  article  as  well  as  the  demon- 
strative; in  the  Midland  and  Northern  dialects  hat  is  used  only  as  the  demonstrative. 


KENTISH  DIALECT  73 

forms;  the  historical  forms  are  common  in  the  first  half  of 
the  thirteenth  centm-y  and  occasional  until  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century. 

(b)  The  pronouns  ha  {he,  she,  they,  them),  hare  {her,  their), 
and  ham  {them)  were  in  frequent  use. 

4.  Verbs. 

(a)  The  ending  of  the  present  indicative  plural  of  strong 
verbs  was  -e|);  the  ending  of  the  present  indicative  plural 
of  weak  verbs  was  -e}?  or  -ie}>.^'^ 

(b)  The  ending  of  the  present  participle  of  strong  verbs  was 
-inde,  later  -inge;  the  ending  of  the  present  participle  of  weak 
verbs  was  -inde,  later  -inge,  or  -iinde,  later  -inge. 

(c)  Weak  verbs  Hke  erien  and  luvien  (see  76  above)  preserved 
their  historical  endings,  -ie,  -ie(n),  etc.,  thruout  the  four- 
teenth century  with  little  substitution  of  analogical  forms. 

83.  The  Kentish  Dialect.  The  characteristics  of  the  Kentish  dia- 
lect are  the  same  as  those  of  the  Southern  dialect  except  with  regard 
to  vowel  sounds.  The  development  of  the  Old  English  vowels  and  diph- 
thongs in  the  Kentish  dialect  differs  in  the  following  respects  from  the 
development  which  these  sounds  underwent  in  the  Southern  and  Mid- 
land dialects: 

1.  Old  Enghsh^^  y  and  y  became  Kentish  [e]  and  [§];  e.g.,  OE  fyr, 
Kentish  ME  ver  [ver];  OE  fyllan,  Kentish  ME  vellen  [vgllan]. 

2.  Old  English  ea  became  in  Kentish  a  sound  which  is  spelled  ea, 
ia,  ya,  yea;  the  pronunciation  of  this  sound  is  uncertain,  but  it  is 
generally  supposed  to  have  been  a  diphthong,  not  a  simple  vowel; 
e.g.,  OE  stream,  Kentish  ME  stream,  striam,  etc. 

3.  Old  EngHsh  eo  became  in  Kentish  a  sound  which  is  spelled  ie,  ye 
i,  y ;  the  pronunciation  of  this  sound  is  uncertain,  but  it  is  generally 
supposed  to  have  been  a  diphthong;  e.g.,  OE  beon,  Kentish  ME 
bien,  byen,  etc. 

••Likewise,  bee|j  is  the  Southern  form  of  the  present  indicative  plural  of  bee(n), 

*'  By  Old  English  is  meant  here  the  West-Saxon  dialect  of  Old  English  (see  note 
37  above).  The  Kentish  dialect  of  Old  EngUsh  already  had  e  and  e  where  the  West- 
Saxon  and  Anglian  dialects  had  y  and  y. 


74  MIDLAND  DIALECT 

4,  Old  English  ie^^  (which  in  the  other  Middle  English  dialects  gener- 
ally became  [e])  became  in  Kentish  a  sound  which  is  spelled  ie,  ye ; 
the  pronunciation  of  this  sound  is  uncertain,  but  it  is  generally- 
supposed  to  have  been  a  diphthong;  e.g.,  OE  nied,  Kentish  ME 
nied,  nyed;  OE  diere,  Kentish  ME  diere,  dyere.**^ 

84.  The  Midland  Dialect.  The  most  important  characteristics  of 
the  Midland  dialect  are  the  following: 

I.  Final  e.  Final  e  was  to  a  great  extent  retained  in  pronunciation 
thruout  the  fourteenth  century,  but  apocope  of  final  e  began  before  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

II.  Inflections. 

1.  Nouns  and  Adjectives. 

(a)  The  analogical  changes  that  took  place  in  the  inflection 
of  nouns  (see  49  ff.  above)  and  adjectives  (see  65  ff.)  were 
carried  out  before  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century. 

(b)  The  distinctions  of  grammatical  gender  were  lost  before 
the  end  of  the  twelfth  century. 

2.  Pronouns. 

(a)  The  historical  forms  of  the  genitive,  dative,  and  accusative 
of  the  definite  article  and  demonstrative  \)e  (se),  {jat  (see  72 
above)  were  displaced  by  analogical  forms  before  the  end  of 
the  twelfth  century. 

(b)  The  historical  forms  of  the  accusative  of  the  third  personal 
pronoun  (see  71  above)  were  displaced  l)y  dative  forms  before 
the  end  of  the  twelfth  century. 

3.  Verbs. 

(a)  The  ending  of  the  present  indicative  plural  of  strong  and 
weak  verbs  was  -e(n). 


*^The  diphthong  ie  occurs  only  in  the  West-Saxon  dialect  of  Old  English;  in 
place  of  ie  the  other  dialects  had  e,  io,  or  co. 

*'The  Kentish  dialect  of  Old  English  had  e  where  the  West-Saxon  dialect  had  a; 
in  many  words,  therefore,  Kentish  Middle  English  has  e  where  Southern  IMiddle 
English  has  §. , 


NON-NORTHERN  DI.\LECT  CHARACTERISTICS  75 

(b)  The  ending  of  the  present  participle  of  strong  and  weak 
verbs  was  -ende,  later  -inge  or  -ing. 

(c)  The  historical  endings  (ie,  ie(n),  etc.)  of  weak  verbs  like 
erien  and  luA-ien  (see  76  above)  were  for  the  most  part  dis- 
placed by  analogical  forms  before  the  end  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. 

85.  Non-Northern  Dialect  Characteristics.  The  Southern  and  the 
Midland  dialects  have  in  common  certain  characteristics  which  are  not 
shared  by  the  Northern  dialect: 

I.  Sounds.  Old  English  a  became  [q]  in  Southern  and  Midland  Mid- 
dle English;  e.g.,  OE  stan,  Southern  and  Midland  ME  stoon.^* 

II.  Inflections. 

1.  Pronouns. 

(a)  Both  the  Southern  and  the  Midland  dialects  employed  the 
pronouns  he,  hi,  ho  {she,  they) ;  hem  {them) ;  and  hire,  here 
{their)  }^ 

(b)  Both  the  early  Southern  and  the  early  Midland  dialects 
employed  the  pronoun  his,  is  {her,  it,  them). 

2.  Verbs. 

(a)  The  past  participle  of  strong  and  weak  verbs  often  had 
the  prefix  i,  y,  from  Old  Enghsh  ge;  e.g.,  icume(n),  past  par- 
ticiple of  cume(n);  the  prefix  is  commoner  in  the  Southern 
dialect,  however,  than  in  the  Midland. 

(b)  The  difference  of  ablaut  in  the  preterit  singular  and  pre- 
terit plural  which  existed  in  most  of  the  strong  verbs  was  on 
the  whole  retained  without  much  disturbance  from  analogy 
(see  74  above). 

"  Old  English  ae  is  often  spelled  in  early  Southern  and  Midland  ME  with  the 
letter  e;  e.g.,  OE  seitex,  early  ]ME  efter;  in  later  Middle  English  the  sound  is  almost 
uniformly  spelled  with  a. 

**The  Southern  dialect  employed  these  pronouns  exclusively,  but  the  Midland 
dialect  also  employed  she,  she;  l^el;  J)elr;  ];eim,  Jjem.     See  86,  II,  1  below. 


76  NON-SOUTHERN  DIALECT  CHARACTERISTICS 

86.  Non-Southern  Dialect  Characteristics.  The  Midland  and  the 
Northern  dialects  have  in  common  certain  characteristics  which  are  not 
shared  by  the  Southern  dialect: 

I.  Sounds.  Old  English  y  and  i  became  [i]  and  [i]  in  Midland  and 
Northern  Middle  Enghsh;  e.g.,  OE  fyr,  Midland  and  Northern  ME  fir; 
OE  fyllan,  Midland  and  Northern  ME  fillen.ss 

II.  Inflections. 

1.  Pronouns. 

(a)  Both  the  Midland  and  the  Northern  dialects  employed  the 
pronoun  she,  sho  {she)}'' 

(b)  Both  the  Midland  and  the  Northern  dialects  employed  the 
pronouns  l^ei  {they)\  j^eir  {their);  beim,  I?em  {them)}^ 

2.  Verbs. 

(a)  Both  the  Midland  and  the  Northern  dialects  employed 
are(n)  as  the  present  indicative  plural  of  the  verb  bee(n).8^ 

(b)  Both  the  Midland  and  the  Northern  dialects  employ  -es 
as  the  ending  of  the  present  indicative  second  and  third  per- 
sons singular  of  verbs.^" 

*•  For  the  relation  between  the  vowels  [e]  and  [g]  in  Southern  on  the  one  hand 
and  Midland  and  Northern  on  the  other  see  note  77  above. 

*'  The  Northern  dialect  employed  she,  sho,  exclusively  as  the  feminine  nomina- 
tive pronoun,  but  the  Midland  dialect  employed  both  she  and  he,  hi,  ho  (see  85, 11, 
1  above).  The  pronoun  she  was  on  the  whole  commonest  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  Midland  territory,  the  pronoun  he,  hi,  ho  was  commonest  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  Midland  territory. 

**The  Northern  dialect  employed  jjei;  J)eir;  l>eim,  l)em  exclusively  as  the  plural 
pronouns  of  the  third  person,  but  the  Midland  dialect  also  employed  he,  hi,  ho;  hire, 
here;  hem  (see  85,  II,  1  above).  The  pronoun  J>ei,  etc.  was  most  commonly  used  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  Midland  territory,  the  pronoun  he,  etc.  was  commonest  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  Midland  territory. 

*'  The  Midland  dialect  also  employed  the  form  bee(n)  or  be  as  the  present  indica- 
tive plural  of  bee(n);  are(n)  was  commonest  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Midland 
territory. 

'"The  ending  -es  was  the  regular  ending  of  the  present  indicative  second  and 
third  persons  singular  in  the  Northern  dialect  (see  87  below) ;  the  Midland  dialect 
used  regularly  the  endings  -est  and  -el>,  and  the  ending  -es  (especially  for  the  third 
person)  occurs  chiefly  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Midland  territory. 


NORTHERN  DL\LECT  77 

87.  The  Northern  Dialect.  The  most  important  characteristics  of 
the  Northern  dialect  are  the  following: 

I.  Sounds. 

1.  Old  English  a  did  not  change  to  [q]  but  remained  [a];  e.g., 
OE  Stan,  Northern  ME  stan,  Midland  and  Southern  ME  stoon. 
By  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  however,  the  [a]  seems  to 
have  become  [^]  or  [e].^^ 

2.  [g]  and  [k]  appear  in  many  words  which  have  [j]  and  [tf]  in 
the  Southern  and  Midland  dialects;  e.g..  Northern  gif.  Southern 
and  Midland  yif;  Northern  kirk(e).  Southern  and  Midland 
chirche.^^ 

3.  Old  EngHsh  sc  [i]  became  [s]  in  unaccented  syllables  and  in 
words  that  were  generally  pronounced  with  Httle  stress;  e.g 
OE  englisc,  Northern  ME  inglis.  Southern  and  Midland  ME 
english;  OE  sceal.  Northern  ME  sal.  Southern  and  Midland 
ME  shal;  OE  scolde,  Northern  ME  solde,  sulde,  Southern 
and  Midland  ME  sholde,  shulde. 

4.  Old  English  hw  was  spelled  in  the  North  qu;  e.g.,  OE  hwaet, 
Northern  ME  quat,  Southern  and  Midland  ME  what,  wat. 
The  sound  represented  by  the  qu  was  probably  that  of  a  spirant 
[h]  followed  by  or  combined  with  [w]. 

II.  Final  e  and  e(n).  Final  e  was  entirely  lost  by  about  the  middle 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  Final  n  of  the  ending  e(n)  was  lost  before 
the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  except  in  the  past  participles 
of  strong  verbs. 

III.  Inflections.^^ 

1.  Adjectives.  With  the  loss  of  final  e  about  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  all  inflection  of  the  adjective  was  lost. 

"  In  the  North  the  long  vowels  [a],  [e],  and  [6]  were  often  spelled  ai,  ay;  ei,  ey; 
and  01,  oy,  particularly  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

'2  This  might  better  perhaps  be  considered  a  non-Southern  than  a  Northern 
characteristic,  for  g  and  k  forms  occur  also  m  the  Midland  territor>';  they  are  more 
numerous,  however,  in  the  North. 

"  With  regard  to  the  displacement  of  historical  forms  by  analogical  forms  in  the 
inflection  of  nouns,  adjectives,  pronouns,  and  verbs,  and  with  regard  to  the  loss  of 
grammatical  gender,  the  Northern  dialect  was  even  less  conservative  than  the  Mid- 
land dialect. 


78  NORTHERN  DIALECT 

2.  Pronouns,     The  plural  of  |>is  (this)  is  l)ir  or  J^er. 

3.  Verbs. 

(a)  The  ending  of  the'present  indicative  first  person  singular 
and  of  the  present  indicative  plural  was  -es  unless  the  subject 
of  the  verb  was  a  personal  pronoun  whicli  immediately  preceded 
or  followed  the  verb,  in  which  case  the  verb  was  without 
ending  or  had  the  ending  -e.  The  present  indicative  forms  of 
the  verb  find(e),  for  example,  were 

(1)  Sing.  1  I  find(e) 

2  thou  findes  Plur.  we,  ye,  they  find(e) 

3  he  findes 

(2)  Sing.  1  I  that  findes 

2  thou  that  findes         Plur.  we,  ye,  they  that  findes 

3  he  that  findes 

(b)  The  ending  of  the  present  participle  was  -and(e). 

(c)  The  ending  of  the  imperative  plural  was  -es. 

(d)  The  preterit  singular  and  preterit  plural  of  strong  verbs 
had  the  same  vowel,  the  difference  of  ablaut  which  had  existed 
in  most  of  the  strong  verbs  (see  74  above)  being  done  away 
with  by  analogy;  in  most  verbs  the  preterit  plural  took  the 
vowel  of  the  preterit  singular.  Thus,  with  the  loss  of  the  end- 
ing -e(n),  the  preterit  singular  and  the  preterit  plural  became 
identical  in  form;  e.g..  Northern  he  sang,  we  sang.  Southern 
and  Midland  he  sang,  we  sunge(n). 

(e)  The  ending  of  the  past  participle  of  strong  verbs  was 
-en  (never  -e). 


APPENDIX 

Middle  English  Spelling 

88.  Influence  of  Old  English  Spelling.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
Middle  English  period  (roughly  between  1050  and  1150)  there  occurred 
a  large  number  of  changes  of  pronunciation,  particularly  in  the  vowel 
sounds.  Old  English  ae  became  [a];  Old  Enghsh  a  became  [q];  the  Old 
English  diphthongs  ea,  ea,  eo,  and  eo  became  the  simple  vowels  [|],  [a], 
[e]  and  [§];  and  a  number  of  new  diphthongs — [ai],  [gi],  [au],  etc. — devel- 
oped out  of  Old  English  sirnple  vowels  followed  by  g,  w,  h,  etc.^^  While 
these  changes  were  going  on  and  for  some  time  after  they  had  been 
carried  out,  people  continued  to  spell  words  in  the  way  they  had  been 
spelled  in  Old  Enghsh.  For  example,  Old  English  j^aet  was  spelled  with 
ae,  Old  Enghsh  beon^^  was  spelled  with  eo,  Old  English  stream  was  spelled 
with  ea,  and  Old  English  stan  was  spelled  with  a  after  the  pronunciation 
of  these  words  had  become  [\>at],  [ben],  [str|m],  and  [stqn].  But  the 
changes  that  had  taken  place  in  pronunciation  were  so  numerous  that 
it  proved  to  be  impossible  to  maintain  the  old  system  of  spelling.  Con- 
fusion in  spelling  soon  arose.  Since  words  that  were  spelled  with  eo 
and  with  e  came  to  have  the  same  sound  in  Middle  Enghsh,  people  re- 
garded the  two  signs  as  interchangeable;  they  would  therefore  spell  Old 
English  beon  and  weorc  with  e,  and  Old  English  swete  and  helpan  with 
eo.  Moreover,  ea  and  eo  were  enough  alike  in  appearance  to  be  confused 
in  use,  so  that  [ben],  from  Old  English  beon  was  sometimes  spelled  with 
ea  and  [str|m],  from  Old  Enghsh  stream  was  sometimes  spelled  with 
eo.    As  a  result,  the  spelling  of  the  vowel  sounds  in  the  earliest  Middle 

^*  For  an  account  of  these  sound  changes  see  42,  43,  46  above. 

'^  The  Old  English  manuscripts  as  a  rule  make  no  distinction  between  long  and 
short  vowels  and  diphthongs;  been,  for  example,  with  a  long  diphthong,  and  weorc, 
with  a  short  diphthong,  are  both  spelled  with  eo.  The  marks  of  length  are  added  by 
modern  editors.  Nor  do  the  manuscripts  distinguish  c  (i.e.,  [tf])  from  c  (i.e.,  [k])  or 
^  (i.e.,  [j])  from  g  (i.e.,  [s]).     The  dot  is  added  by  modern  editors. 


80  MIDDLE  ENGLISH  SPELLING 

English  texts  exhibits  great  confusion,  which  gradually  diminished,  how- 
ever, as  the  digraphs  ea  and  eo  fell  more  and  more  into  disuse  and  as  the 
character  ae  gave  place  to  a  as  a  means  of  representing  the  vowel  [a]. 

89.  Influence  of  Old  French  Spelling.  There  is  no  doubt  that  in  the 
course  of  time  the  confusion  of  early  Middle  English  spelling  would 
have  been  done  away  with  and  that  a  good  system  of  spelling  Middle 
English  would  have  been  evolved  on  the  basis  of  the  Old  English  system 
if  the  English  people  had  been  left  to  themselves.  But  they  were  not 
left  to  themselves.  French  was  the  language  of  the  superior  class  from 
1066  to  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Educated  people  read 
French  books  and  were  expected  to  be  able  to  write  as  well  as  speak  the 
French  language;  French  words  were  adopted  into  the  language  and  kept 
their  French  spelUngs  when  used  in  writing.  As  a  result,  people  began  to 
spell  certain  English  sounds  according  to  the  French  system  of  spelling. 
The  most  important  changes  that  came  about  were  these: 

1.  [§],  spelled  in  OE  with  ae  and  in  early  ME  with  ae  or  ea,  came  to 
be  spelled  with  e,  as  in  French;  e.g.,  early  ME  hsd]>,  later  ME  he]> 
or  heeth. 

2.  [u],  spelled  in  OE  and  early  ME  with  u,  was  often  spelled  with 
o  in  later  ME,  particularly  in  proximity  with  letters  like  n,  m,  v, 
and  w;  e.g.,  early  ME  sune,  later  ME  sone. 

3.  [u],  spelled  in  OE  and  early  ME  with  u,  was  usually  spelled  in  late 
ME  with  ou;  e.g.,  early  ME  hus,  late  ME  hous. 

4.  [y]  and  [y],  which  were  spelled  in  OE  with  y  and  had  the  sound  of 
French  u,  were  spelled  in  Southern  ME  with  u,  as  in  French;  [y] 
was  sometimes  spelled  ui;  e.g.,  OE  fyllan.  Southern  ME  vulle(n); 
OE  fyr,  Southern  ME  vur,  vuir. 

5.  [e],  spelled  in  early  ME  with  e  or  eo  is  often  spelled  in  late  ME 
with  ie;  e.g.,  OE  spedan,  early  ME  spede(n),  late  ME  spede(n) 
or  spiede(n). 

6.  [v],  spelled  in  OE  and  in  the  earliest  ME  with  f,  came  to  be  spelled 
with  V,  as  in  French;  e.g.,  OE  life,  ME  live. 

7.  [tf],  spelled  in  OE  with  c,  came  to  be  spelled  in  ME  with  ch,  as  in 
French;  e.g.,  OE  cidan,**^  ME  chide (n). 

8.  [kw],  spelled  in  OE  with  cw,  came  to  be  spelled  in  ME  with  qu,  as 
in  French;  e.g.,  OE  cwen,  ME  quen  or  queen. 

•*  As  to  c,  see  the  preceding  note. 


MIDDLE  ENGLISH  SPELLING  81 

The  influence  of  French  spelUng  on  English  spelling  began  soon  after 
the  Norman  conquest,  but  the  changes  which  it  brought  about  were  not 
completed  until  after  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

90.  Spelling  of  Middle  English  Vowels  and  Diphthongs.  The  table 
given  below  shows  the  spellings  which  are  most  commonly  used  in  Middle 
EngUsh  manuscripts  to  represent  the  various  vowels  and  diphthongs 
The  first  column  contains  the  sounds  as  represented  in  phonetic  notation; 
the  second  column  contains  the  spellings  by  which  these  sounds  are  repre- 
sented in  the  earHer  Middle  Enghsh  manuscripts  (roughly,  before  1250); 
the  third  column  contains  the  spellings  by  which  these  same  sounds  are 
represented  in  the  later  Middle  English  manuscripts  (roughly,  after 
1250).  Spellings  which  are  decidedly  less  frequent  than  the  others  are 
placed  in  parentheses. 

ME  Sound        Early  ME  Spelling  Late  ME  Spelling 

a,  aa 
a 

e,  ee,  (ie) 
e,  ee 
e 

i,  ii,  y 
i,  y 

O,  00 
O,  00 

o 

ou,  (o) 

U,  V,  0 

u,  V,  ui 

U,  V 

au,  aw 

ei,  ai,  ey,  ay 

"  [a]  does  not  occur  in  the  earliest  ME,  for  the  OE  [a]  became  [q]  in  ME.  The  ME 
[a]  was  the  result  of  the  lengthening  of  [a]  in  open  syllables;  see  43,  lb  above  and  note 
43b. 

''  The  letters  u  and  v  were  used  interchangeably  by  the  Middle  English  scribes. 

^'  The  diphthong  [ai]  occurs  only  in  early  ME;  in  late  ME  it  became  identical  in 
sound  with  [^i]. 


Laj^' 

[a] 

a,  ae,  ea 

[e] 

e,  eo 

m 

se,  ea,  e,  (eo) 

[€] 

e,  eo,  (ae) 

[i] 

i,  (y) 

[i] 

i,  (y) 

[o] 

0 

[q] 

a,  0,  (oa) 

[q] 

0 

[u] 

u,  v^s 

[u] 

U,  V 

[y] 

U,  V,  ul 

[y] 

u,  V 

[ai] 

ai,  aei,  ei,  aj,  sdf^ 

[au] 

au,  aw,  a5,  ag,  agh 

ki] 

ei,  aei,  e;,  263 

82  ji  MIDDLE  ENGLISH  SPELLING 

ME  Sound  ^-  Early  ME  Spelling  Late  ME  Spelling 
[€«]                 eu,  ew  eu,  ew 

[iu]  iu,  iw,  eu,  ew,  eou,  eow  iu,  iw,  eu,  ew,  u,  ui 

[qu]  au,  aw,  35,  ag,  agh,  ou,  ow,  05,  og,       ou,  ow 

[qu]  ou,  ow,  o  ou,  ow,  o 

[<flY°'  oi,  oy,  (ui)io2 

The  student  should  remember  that  all  diacritical  marks  which  he  finds 
in  Middle  English  texts  are  supplied  by  modern  editors. 

91.  Spelling  of  Middle  English  Consonants.  The  table  given  below 
shows  the  spellings  which  are  most  commonly  used  in  Middle  English 
manuscripts  to  represent  consonant  sounds,  so  far  as  the  spelling  of 
these  sounds  differs  from  that  of  Modern  English. 

LME  Spelling 
gh,  h,  5,  ch 
wh 

y,  5 

""  The  Middle  English  diphthongs  are  variously  spelled  in  early  Middle  English 
for  two  reasons.  First,  the  sounds  of  which  they  were  composed  were  variously 
spelled,  [q],  e.g.,  being  spelled  either  a  or  o.  Second,  the  diphthongs  themselves  were 
of  various  origin  (see  43,  2  above),  [aul,  e.g.,  developing  out  of  OE  a  followed  by  w  or 
g,  or  out  of  OE  ea  followed  by  h.  Many  of  the  early  Middle  English  spellings  of  these 
diphthongs  are  etymological  spellings  which  do  not  represent  adequately  the  true 
nature  of  the  sounds.     See  also  note  104  below. 

"oi  The  diphthong  [qi]  occurs  only  rarely  in  early  Middle  EngUsh;  it  is  therefore 
given  only  in  the  third  column. 

"^The  tables  given  in  90  and  91  are  not  intended  to  include  all  of  the  spellings 
that  occur  in  Middle  Enghsh  manuscripts,  but  only  those  that  are  fairly  common. 
No  accoimt  is  taken  of  spellings  that  are  rare  or  eccentric.  And  no  account  is  taken 
of  spellings  that  may  represent  differences  of  pronunciation;  such  spelUngs  are  dealt 
with  in  the  account  of  Middle  English  dialects  which  is  given  in  81  ff. 

'"'  That  is,  [h]  before  consonants  and  after  vowels. 

>•**  The  character  j  was  called  50 j  [JQh],  and  was  a  slight  modification  of  the  Old 
English  form  of  the  letter  g.  The  Old  English  g  represented  two  sounds,  that  of  [j], 
e.g.,  in  daeg,  and  that  of  [5],  e.g.,  in  agen;  this  sound  is  a  spirant  like  the  g  of  North 
German  sagen.  In  Middle  English  the  sound  of  [j]  was  preserved  if  it  occurred  at 
the  beginning  of  a  word,  as  in  je,  from  OE  ge.  But  when  it  was  preceded  by  a  vowel 
it  united  with  the  vowel  to  form  a  diphthong,  as  in  ME  dai  from  OE  d«g.  The  Old 
EngUsh  sound  [5]  became  [w]  in  early  ME  when  it  was  preceded  by  a  vowel,  and  then 
it  united  with  the  preceding  vowel  to  form  a  diphthong,  as  in  ME  owen  [qusoI  from 


ME  Sound 

EME  SpeUing 

[hj^o' 

h,5/''^g 

[hw] 

hw,  wh 

[j] 

5/''^g 

MIDDLE  ENGLISH  SPELLING        \        \  83 


ME  Sound 

EME  Spelling 

LME  Spelling 

[f]     . 

sc,  ss,  s 

sch,   ssch,  sh,  ssh 

[W 

I>,i05  ^m     ■ 

b,th 

[«] 

h« 

Kth 

[v] 

f,  V,  u 

V,  u 

[w] 

w  (initially) 

w 

[w] 

w,  5,  g,  gh  (medially)  107 

w 

OE  agen.  In  the  few  words  in  which  it  was  followed  by  a  vowel  and  preceded  by  a 
•  consonant,  OE  [5]  became  [w]  in  ME,  e.g.,  in  halwien,  from  OE  halgian.  OE 
initial  [5]  however,  became  in  ME  a  stop  consonant  like  the  g  in  ]Modem  English 
good.  This  stop  g  was  then  spelled  with  a  new  variety  of  the  letter  g  which  was  very 
much  like  the  modern  g.  The  Old  English  form  of  the  letter  g,  slightly  modified, 
was  then  used  to  spell  the  sounds  other  than  stop  g  which  had  developed  out  of 
the  two  Old  EngUsh  sounds  of  g.    That  is,  it  was  used  to  represent: 

1.  The  sound  of  [j],  e.g.,  in  je,  from  OE  ^e; 

2.  The  sound  of  [w],  e.g.,  in  haljien,  from  OE  halgian; 

3.  The  second  element  of  the  diphthongs  [ai]  and  [gi],  e.g.,  in  daj  from  OE  dsei 

and  we  J  from  OE  weg; 

4.  The  second  element  of  the  diphthongs  [au]  and  [qu],  e.g.,  in  drajen  from  OE 

dragan  and  ajen  or  ojen  from  OE  agen. 
It  was  also  used  to  represent: 

5.  The  soimd  of  [h]  before  consonants  and  after  vowels,  e.g.,  in  nijt  from  OE  niht. 

1"*  The  name  of  the  letter  \>  is  "thorn. " 

*"*  The  name  of  the  letter  tJ  is  "crossed  d"  or  "eth"  [gtS]. 

"'  [w]  is  spelled  3  or  gh  when  it  developed  out  of  OE  [g],  e.g.,  in  haljien,  halghien 
from  OE  halgian.     See  note  104  above. 


^^  14  DAY  USE 

RBTURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

2?i'nWA''''*  °1.**l*  '««  date  stamped  below 
or  on  Che  date  to  wh.h  rene^^^^i^J^^^! 

rS^S  SSL^l.r"'^^  '^'^  P"0'  *o  date  due. 
iteaewed  boola  are  lubjea  to  immediate  recall. 


WEC'D  LP    npp  1  1  70  .y 


mz 


BHrma  mtia  9  73  -AAMStSi 


•^  °"^  WMi  a  g  s;;- 


■ECL  CIL    MAY     6  1961 


LD21A-40m-8'72 
(Qll78810)476-A-32 


LD  21A-60w-7,'66' 
(G4427sl0)476B 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 

Umversity  of  California 
Berkeley 


